Category: Biology Second Paper

The German word Starch means strong or hard or hard or rigid. Starch is a complex homopolysaccharide. Its molecular symbol is (C6H10O5)n. Carbohydrates or sugars produced in the process of photosynthesis are converted into starch and stored. Rice, wheat, potato, sorghum, banana, barley etc. are the main sources of starch. All these ingredients contain 70-80% starch. Round potato starch particles are the largest and 100µm. Rice starch particles are smallest and 2µm. The first reference to the extraction of starch from plants is found in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder (77-78 AD). Dr. Siddiq Publications

The German word Starch means strong or hard or hard or rigid. Starch is a complex homopolysaccharide. Its molecular symbol is (C6H10O5)n. Carbohydrates or sugars produced in the process of photosynthesis are converted into starch and stored. Rice, wheat, potato, sorghum, banana, barley etc. are the main sources of starch. All these ingredients contain 70-80% starch. Round potato starch particles are the largest and 100µm. Rice starch particles are smallest and 2µm. The first reference to the extraction of starch from plants is found in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder (77-78 AD). Dr. Siddiq Publications

Properties of Starch /Religion
(i) Starch is tasteless, odorless and colorless substance.
(ii) It is a white granular powdery organic chemical substance.
(iii) It is insoluble in water, alcohol and ether.
(iv) Starch turns blue in iodine solution.
(v) It breaks down at high temperature into large dextin particles.
(vi) Starch cannot oxidize Fehling’s solution.
(vii) Iodine reacts with amylose of starch to produce black or black-blue color.
(viii) Iodine reacts with amylopectin of starch to produce red or purple color.

Chemical structure of starch
Starch is a complex polysaccharide. Starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin. It contains 22% amylose and 78% amylopectin. Amylose is composed of 200-1000 molecules and amylopectin is composed of 2000-200,000 molecules of glucose. Numerous glucose molecules are linked by α-1-4 glycosidic bonds to form starch. However, glucose molecules can be joined by α-1-6 bonds. Starch is hydrolyzed to glucose.

Use of starch
(i) Stored food: Starch is stored in the plant body as stored food. Starch in plant seeds, fruits and tubers serves as stored food. Starch stored in rice, wheat, bhutra, cassava, corn and round potato is used as human food.
(ii) Source of energy: It acts as a source of energy in the organism. Starch is converted into glucose to provide energy and carbon molecules to the body. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(iii) Respiration: It generates heat and energy in respiration.
(iv) Research: Starch is used in the laboratory to produce glucose and alcohol.
(v) In Paper Industry: Starch is the main ingredient in paper industry.
(vi) Preparation of glue: Pure starch is mixed with hot water to make glue. It is used to make corrugated board glue.
(vii) In titration: Starch is used as indicator during titration.
(viii) Textile use: Warp seizing agent is produced from starch. Warp shrinking agents reduce the rate of yarn tearing during fabric weaving. Starch is used for beating (laundry) cloth. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(ix) Oil exploration: Starch is used to increase the viscosity of drilling fluids, which are slippery fluids in oil exploration.
(x) Manufacture of cosmetics: Starch is used in the manufacture of talcum powder and other cosmetics.
(xi) Food processing: Starch is used to increase the density of food during food processing.
(xii) Production of Polymers: Starch is used to make eco-friendly bioplastics and other synthetic polymers.
(xiii) Fuel production: Biofuel corn ethanol is produced from starch in a fermentation process.
(xiv) Reproduction: Starch stored in the fruits, seeds, rhizomes and corms of the plant participates in the production of offspring in the next season.
(xv) In pharmaceutical industry: Starch is used as active ingredient carrier, tablet disintegrant and binder in pharmaceutical industry.
(xvi) Clothing starch: Liquid clothing starch is prepared by mixing pure starch with water. It is used in garments and laundry.

Cellulose is a complex homopolysaccharide. The cell wall of autophagous plants is composed of cellulose. Cellulose is the most abundant organic material on Earth. Glucose is obtained by wet analysis of cellulose with hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide. Cellulose molecules contain β-1-4 glycosidic linkages. Neither animals nor humans can digest cellulose because they have no enzymes to break these β-1-4 glycosidic bonds. French chemist Anselme Payen (1838) discovered cellulose. Kobayashi & Shoda (1992) first produced synthetic cellulose. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Amount of cellulose
94% in cotton, 90% in linen or linseed, 90% in cellulose, 30-40% in grass, 60% in wood, 45% in dry hemp fiber, 58% in jute, 40% in sugarcane bagasse, 42% in wheat straw and 40-70% in organic soil. remains

Properties of Cellulose
(i) Cellulose is a tasteless, odorless and colorless substance.
(ii) It is chemically inert, but converts to glucose on wet analysis with strong acids.
(iii) It is insoluble in water and organic solvents. Dr. Siddique Publications
(iv) Its molecular weight ranges from 2 lakh to several lakh daltons.
(v) It is non-toxic and non-oxidizing.
(vi) It shows no color in iodine solution.
(vii) It is tough and fibrous.
(viii) It has no nutritional value.
(ix) Cellulose contains 44.41% carbon, 44.4% oxygen and 6.2% hydrogen.

Chemical structure of cellulose
Cellulose is a complex polysaccharide. It is composed of glucose molecules. Numerous glucose molecules are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds to form cellulose. Cellulose is converted to glucose by hydrolysis with H2SO4 or HCl or NaOH.

Uses of cellulose
(i) Textile industry: Cellulose is used as the main raw material for textile industry. Rayon is made from cellulose as the raw material of the fabric.
(ii) As an explosive: It is used as a nitrate explosive. Cellulose is used as raw material for making nitrocellulose. Dr. Siddique Publications
(iii) For making furniture: Cellulose is the main material of wood and bamboo. Various types of furniture are made from bamboo and wood.
(iv) In paper industry: It is used to make filter paper and tissue paper. Cellulose insulators are made from newsprint paper in a recycling process. Cellulose insulator is an environmentally friendly coating.
(v) Digestion: Wood-boring insects use cellulose to digest wood.
(vi) In making gum: Methyl cellulose is used in making gum. Pure cellulose is mixed with water to make glue.
(vii) For making photographic film: It is used for making photographic, cellophane and celluloid.
(viii) In Biotechnology: Cellulose produced from fungi and bacteria is being used in biotechnology.
(ix) As Structural Material: Cellulose acts as the main structural material of plants. It forms leaves, stems and branches of plants. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(x) Skeletal system of plants: Cellulose provides strength and protection to plants. Cellulose is therefore called the skeletal system of plants.
(xi) Faecal formation: Most of the cellulose ingested with animal feed is excreted as faeces. Rafez relieves constipation. Cellulose is therefore essential for animal life. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(xii) Stationary phase: Cellulose is used as the stationary phase in thin layer chromatography.

Why can’t people digest cellulose?
Cellulase, the enzyme that digests cellulose, is not produced in the mammalian digestive system. However, a type of mitotic bacteria lives in the digestive system of cows, buffaloes, goats, deer, sheep etc. All these bacteria produce cellulose digesting enzyme cellulase. This enzyme aids in cellulose digestion by cleaving the β, 1-4 glycosidic bonds of cellulose. Humans cannot digest cellulose because the human digestive system lacks such mitotic bacteria. But the human diet must contain cellulose-type food. Because cellulose is essential for the production of stool. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Cellulase, the enzyme that digests cellulose, is not produced in the mammalian digestive system. However, a type of mitotic bacteria lives in the digestive system of cows, buffaloes, goats, deer, sheep etc. All these bacteria produce cellulose digesting enzyme cellulase. This enzyme aids in cellulose digestion by cleaving the β, 1-4 glycosidic bonds of cellulose. Humans cannot digest cellulose because the human digestive system lacks such mitotic bacteria. But the human diet must contain cellulose-type food. Because cellulose is essential for the production of stool. Dr. Siddiq Publications

(i) Textile industry: Cellulose is used as the main raw material for textile industry. Rayon is made from cellulose as the raw material of the fabric.
(ii) As an explosive: It is used as a nitrate explosive. Cellulose is used as raw material for making nitrocellulose. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(iii) For making furniture: Cellulose is the main material of wood and bamboo. Various types of furniture are made from bamboo and wood.
(iv) In paper industry: It is used to make filter paper and tissue paper. Cellulose insulators are made from newsprint paper in a recycling process. Cellulose insulator is an environmentally friendly coating.
(v) Digestion: Wood-boring insects use cellulose to digest wood.
(vi) In making gum: Methyl cellulose is used in making gum. Pure cellulose is mixed with water to make glue.
(vii) For making photographic film: It is used for making photographic, cellophane and celluloid.
(viii) In Biotechnology: Cellulose produced from fungi and bacteria is being used in biotechnology.
(ix) As Structural Material: Cellulose acts as the main structural material of plants. It forms leaves, stems and branches of plants. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(x) Skeletal system of plants: Cellulose provides strength and protection to plants. Cellulose is therefore called the skeletal system of plants.
(xi) Faecal formation: Most of the cellulose ingested with animal feed is excreted as faeces. Rafez relieves constipation. Cellulose is therefore essential for animal life. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(xii) Stationary phase: Cellulose is used as the stationary phase in thin layer chromatography.

Cellulose is a complex polysaccharide. It is composed of glucose molecules. Numerous glucose molecules are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds to form cellulose. Cellulose is converted to glucose by hydrolysis with H2SO4 or HCl or NaOH.

(i) Cellulose is a tasteless, odorless and colorless substance.
(ii) It is chemically inert, but converts to glucose on wet analysis with strong acids.
(iii) It is insoluble in water and organic solvents. Dr. Siddique Publications
(iv) Its molecular weight ranges from 2 lakh to several lakh daltons.
(v) It is non-toxic and non-oxidizing.
(vi) It shows no color in iodine solution.
(vii) It is tough and fibrous.
(viii) It has no nutritional value.
(ix) Cellulose contains 44.41% carbon, 44.4% oxygen and 6.2% hydrogen.

94% in cotton, 90% in linen or linseed, 90% in cellulose, 30-40% in grass, 60% in wood, 45% in dry hemp fiber, 58% in jute, 40% in sugarcane bagasse, 42% in wheat straw and 40-70% in organic soil. remains

Cellulose is a complex homopolysaccharide. The cell wall of autophagous plants is composed of cellulose. Cellulose is the most abundant organic material on Earth. Glucose is obtained by wet analysis of cellulose with hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide. Cellulose molecules contain β-1-4 glycosidic linkages. Neither animals nor humans can digest cellulose because they have no enzymes to break these β-1-4 glycosidic bonds. French chemist Anselme Payen (1838) discovered cellulose. Kobayashi & Shoda (1992) first produced synthetic cellulose. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Maltose is a disaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Its molecular symbol is C12H22O11. It is sweet in taste and its sweetness is 30-60% of sugar. Maltose is produced by partial distillation of sugar. Maltose is formed by the partial breakdown of starch. Two molecules of glucose are joined by α-1,4 linkage to form maltose. Maltose is used in malting barley to make beer.