Category: Biology Second Paper

Born-23 May 1707 AD and Died-10 January AD. He is a Swedish biologist and physician. He founded The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He is called the father of taxonomy. He named many plant and animal taxa. Introduced binomial nomenclature of organisms. His famous books are Systema Naturae, Species Plantarum and Genera Plantarum etc.

Born-18 July 1635 AD and died-3 March 1703 AD. He is a British engineer and philosopher. He increased the magnification of the microscope. Discovered the cell and first used the term cell. He wrote the famous book Micrographia about cells.

Born-24 October 1632 AD and died-26 August 1723 AD. He is a native of the Netherlands and a Dutch scientist. He is called father of microbiology. He invented the simple microscope. First described unicellular organisms and named them animalcules. He first observed protozoa, bacteria, yeast, red blood cells, sperm, nerve cells, muscle tissue, etc. Describe the circulation of blood inside the capillaries. Describe the life cycle of insects. His book is – On the Circulation of the Blood, Latin Text of His 65th Letter to the Royal Society, Facsimile.

Born-15 April 1578 AD and died-3 June 1657 AD. He was a British physician. He is called the father of human physiology. He provided the first scientific explanation of blood circulation in the human body. Did basic research on embryology. He states that all living things are created from the ovum.

Born-31 December 1514 AD and died-15 October 1564 AD. He was a Dutch physician and teacher of anatomy. He is called Father of Modern Anatomy. He was the first to shed light on the anatomy of fish. Present information about different bones and muscles. His famous book is Fabrics of Human Body, De Corporis Fabrica.

Born in 384 BC and died in 322 BC. He was a student of the Greek philosopher Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. He is called the father of zoology. He classified animals based on the presence and absence of blood and eggs and childbirth. Identified and classified about 520 species of animals. He wrote 146 books. His famous books are – Historia Animalium, On The Generation of Animals, On The Parts of Animals, Metaphysic etc.

1. Aristotle: Born in 384 BC and died in 322 BC. He was a student of the Greek philosopher Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great. He is called the father of zoology. He classified animals based on the presence and absence of blood and eggs and childbirth. Identified and classified about 520 species of animals. He wrote 146 books. His famous books are – Historia Animalium, On The Generation of Animals, On The Parts of Animals, Metaphysic etc.
2. Andreas Vesalius: Born-31 December 1514 AD and died-15 October 1564 AD. He was a Dutch physician and teacher of anatomy. He is called Father of Modern Anatomy. He was the first to shed light on the anatomy of fish. Present information about different bones and muscles. His famous book is Fabrics of Human Body, De Corporis Fabrica.
3. William Harvey: Born-15 April 1578 AD and died-3 June 1657 AD. He was a British physician. He is called the father of human physiology. He provided the first scientific explanation of blood circulation in the human body. Did basic research on embryology. He states that all living things are created from the ovum.
4. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek: Born-24 October 1632 AD and died-26 August 1723 AD. He is a native of the Netherlands and a Dutch scientist. He is called father of microbiology. He invented the simple microscope. First described unicellular organisms and named them animalcules. He first observed protozoa, bacteria, yeast, red blood cells, sperm, nerve cells, muscle tissue, etc. Describe the circulation of blood inside the capillaries. Describe the life cycle of insects. His book is – On the Circulation of the Blood, Latin Text of His 65th Letter to the Royal Society, Facsimile.
5. Robert Hooke: Born-18 July 1635 AD and died-3 March 1703 AD. He is a British engineer and philosopher. He increased the magnification of the microscope. Discovered the cell and first used the term cell. He wrote the famous book Micrographia about cells.
6. Carolus Linnaeus: Born-23 May 1707 AD and Died-10 January AD. He is a Swedish biologist and physician. He founded The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He is called the father of taxonomy. He named many plant and animal taxa. Introduced binomial nomenclature of organisms. His famous books are Systema Naturae, Species Plantarum and Genera Plantarum etc.
7. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck: Born on August 1, 1744 and died on December 18, 1829. He was a French soldier, naturalist and educator. World famous for Soft inheritance-Lamarckism. He coined the term Biology. He expressed the theory called Inheritance of Acquired characters in relation to the evolution of organisms. His world famous books are Philosophic Zoologique and Hydrogeologie.
8. Georges Cuvier: Born-23 August 1769 AD and died-13 May 1832 AD. He is a resident of France. He is called the father of comparative physiology. He established paleontology as a branch of science. Describe the comparative anatomy of animals. Improved Linnaeus’ taxonomy. His famous book is Le Rege Animal.
9. Karl Ernst Von Baer: Born-28 February 1792 AD and died-28 November 1876 AD. He was a Russian citizen. He is called the father of modern embryology. He founded comparative embryology. Discovered the mammalian egg and notochord. Researched ethnology and anthropology. Discovered the neural folds, described the five main sacs of the brain and the function of the extracellular membrane.
10. Charles Robert Darwin: Born-12 February 1809 AD and died-19 April 1882 AD. He is a resident of United Kingdom. He advocated the theory of natural selection. He explains the role of nature in the origin and evolution of species. Mentions the gradual changes in coral reefs. Introduced the doctrine of Pangenesis. Explains human evolution. The most discussed book in the history of biology written by him is – Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Awards received include Fellow of the Royal Society, Copley Medal, Royal Medal and Wollaston Medal.
11. Theodor Schwann: Born – 7 December 1810 AD and died – 11 January 1882 AD. He is a resident of Germany. He is called the proponent of the cell theory. He pointed out that organisms are made up of cells and new cells are formed from old cells. Discover the myelin sheath of peripheral axons and marked muscle. Identified the role of microorganisms in decomposition. He won the Copley Medal in 1845.
12. Gregor Johann Mendel: Born – 20 July 1822 AD and died – 6 January 1884 AD. He was a native of the Czech Republic. He is called the father of genetics. He studied the bean plant and provided two clues to heredity. This is called Mendelism.
13. Alfred Russel Wallace: Born-8 January 1823 and died-7 November 1913. He is a resident of England. He is the progenitor of the Wallace line. Did extensive research on animal adaptations. Awards received Darwin-Wallace Medal, Darwin Medal, Founder’s Gold Medal, Linnean Medal, Copley Medal, Order of Merit, Royal Medal etc.
14. Louis Pasteur: Born-27 December 1822 AD and died-28 September 1895 AD. He was a citizen of France. He is the inventor of the vaccine. He discovered the germs that cause rabies, anthrax, fowl cholera and silk moth diseases. Discovered vaccines for chicken cholera, cattle anthrax and rabies. Invented the method of pasteurization. Proves that the doctrine of spontaneous creation is incorrect.
15. August Weismann: Born-17 January 1834 AD and died-5 November 1914 AD. He is a German scientist. He is the proponent of germplasm theory. Explains the transmission of hereditary material through germplasm theory. Lamarck disproves the theory of inheritance of acquired qualities. Awarded Darwin-Wallace Medal.
16. Hugo de Vries: Born-16 February 1848 AD and died-21 May 1935 AD. He was a native of the Netherlands. He is a proponent of mutation theory. He was commenting that evolution is caused by sudden change as a result of mutation. Describe the role of osmosis and the relationship between osmotic pressure and molecular weight of substances. Awarded Linnean Medal.
17. Ronald Ross: Born-13 May 1857 AD and Died-16 September 1932 AD. He was a citizen of India and United Kingdom. He was a Scottish physician and bacteriologist. It is said to be the gateway to malaria prevention. He proved that the life cycle of the malaria germ takes place in the stomach of the mosquito. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (1902), James Tait Black Memorial.
18. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose: Born-30 November 1858 AD and died-23 November 1937 AD. He is a Bangladeshi. He is a Bengali physicist, biologist and archaeologist. He was the first to discover radio and microwave optics. Invented the plant stimulation meter Crescograph. Awarded Fellow of the Royal Society.
19. Thomas Hunt Morgan: Born-5 September 1866 AD and died-4 December 1945 AD. He was a citizen of the United States. He is an American geneticist, evolutionary scientist, and embryologist. He proved that chromosomes are inside the cell nucleus and genes are located in chromosomes. Genes are arranged in sequence and are transmitted as hereditary traits. Describe the mechanism of transmission of hereditary characteristics. Chromosomal theory explains the linear arrangement of genes on chromosomes, crossing over and mutation. His books are – The Mechanism of Mendelism Heredity, The Theory of Gene, Heredity and Sex etc. Awarded Nobel (1933), Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1909).
20. Alexander Fleming: Born-6 August 1881 AD and died-11 March 1955 AD. He is an English biologist and pharmacologist. He discovered the enzyme called lysozyme in 1923. In 1928 Penicillin was discovered from Penicillium notatum. Did extensive research on bacteriology, immunology and chemotherapy. Awarded Nobel in Medicine, John Scott Legacy Medal and Premium, Albert Medal etc.
21. Salim Ali: Born-12 November 1896 AD and died-20 July 1987 AD. He was an Indian citizen. He is the best ornithologist and naturalist of South Asia. He emphasized on the recording, distribution and conservation of bird species of the Indian subcontinent. His books are – The Book of Indian Birds, Indian Hill Birds, Our Birds etc. Awards received Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan etc.
22. Ernst Boris Chain: Born-19 June 1906 AD and died-12 August 1979 AD. He is a German-British biochemist. Chain and Florey succeeded in producing pure penicillin in 1940. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine.
23. Sir Howard Walter Florey: Born-24 September 1898 AD and died-21 February 1968 AD. He is an Australian scientist. Chain and Florey succeeded in producing pure penicillin in 1940. Awarded Nobel Prize in Medicine.২৪। Earl Wilbur. Sutherland Juniorঃ জন্ম-১৯ নভেম্বর ১৯১৫ খ্রিস্টাব্দ এবং মৃত্যু-৯ মার্চ ১৯৭৪ খ্রিস্টাব্দ। তিনি একজন মার্কিন বিজ্ঞানী। তিনি হরমোনের মাধ্যমে এককোষ থেকে অন্য কোষের সংকেত বাহিত হওয়ার কৌশল আবিষ্কার করেন। প্রাপ্ত পুরস্কার চিকিৎসাবিজ্ঞানে নোবেল (১৯৭১) এবং আলবার্ট লস্কর অ্যাওয়ার্ড। ড. সিদ্দিক পাবলিকেশন্স
25. Francis Crick: Born-8 June 1916 AD and died-28 July 2004 AD. He is a British molecular biologist, biophysicist and neuroscientist. Watson and Crick discovered the double helix model of the DNA molecule in 1953. Researched the Genetic Code and Central Dogma. Awards received include the Nobel Prize in Medicine (1963) and the Copley Medal. Dr. Siddique Publications
26. Edward Butts Lewis: Born-20 May 1918 and died-21 July 2004. He is an American scientist. He jointly identified and classified fruit fly genes. Discovered the regulation of genes in embryonic development. Awards received are Nobel in Medicine (1995), Albert Losker Award etc.
27. Har Gobind Khorana: Born-9 January 1922 AD and Died-9 November 2011 AD. He was an Indian citizen. He is the inventor of artificial genes. He discovered the genetic code. Mentions the role of nucleotides in the chemical structure and function of cells. Synthetic copies of genes are synthesized in yeast cells. His book is Chemical Biology. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (1968), Girdner Foundation International Award, Louise Gross Horwitz Prize, Willard Gibbs Award, Padma Vibhushan etc.
28. Oliver Smithies: Born-23 June 1925 AD and Died-10 January 2017 AD. He is a British-born American geneticist and biochemist. Oliver Smithis, Renato Capecchi and John Evans researched mammalian embryonic cells and DNA recombination. Discovered powerful technology to target and inactivate specific genes. Received Nobel Prize in Medicine (2007), Wolf Prize in Medicine etc.
29. Robert G. Edwards: Born-27 September 1925 AD and died-10 April 2013 AD. He is a British biologist. In 1978, he fertilized the eggs outside the woman’s body through in-vitro fertilization in test tubes. He then gave birth to the first human child, Louise Brown, by reinsertion into a woman’s uterus. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2010).
30. James Dewery Watson: Born-6 April 1928. He is an American molecular biologist. Watson and Crick discovered the double helix model of molecules in 1953. Researched the Genetic Code and Central Dogma. The awards received are Nobel in Medicine (1963), Albert Lasker Award, Member of the National Academy Sciences, EMBO Membership, Copley Medal, Lomonosov Gold Medal etc.
31. Luc Montagnier: Born-18 August 1932 AD. He is a French virologist. Discovered in 1983 by scientists Barre Sinossi and Luc Montagnier. It has made the treatment of AIDS possible. Awards received include the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2008) and the Japan Prize.
32. Harvey J. Alter: Born-12 September 1935 AD. He is an American medical scientist. Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Moen Rice explain liver cancer, cirrhosis and hepatitis-C virus. The award received is the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2020).
33. Gunter Blobel: Born-21 May 1936 AD and Died-18 February 2018 AD. He is a German-American biologist. He explained how protein molecules continue the life cycle of cells and the movement of proteins through the cell wall or cell membrane. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (1999).
34. Herald Zur Hausen: Born-11 March 1936 AD. He is a German physician. He discovered the human papilloma virus (HPV), which causes cervical cancer in women. As a result, the discovery of an effective vaccine for this virus has become possible. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2008).
35. Mario Renato Capecchi: Born on October 6, 1937. He is an Italian-American biologist. Oliver Smithis, Renato Capecchi and John Evans researched mammalian embryonic cells and DNA recombination. Discovered powerful technology to target and inactivate specific genes. Received awards Nobel in Medicine (2007), Kyoto Prize, Franklin Medal, Massry Prize, Wolf Prize in Medicine etc.

36. J. Robin Warren: Born-11 June 1937 AD. He is an Australian pathologist. Warren and Marshall discovered the bacteria Helicobacter pylori and discovered the bacteria’s role in causing gastritis and peptic ulcers. Prizes received: Nobel in Medicine (2005), Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize.
37. Leland Harrison Hartwell: Born-October 30, 1939. He is an American scientist. Hartwell, Hunt, and Maxim Nurse discovered that specific genes control cell cycle function. Cell formation, growth and subsequent division are accomplished through the cell cycle. His books are – The Harvey Lectures Series 90 and Art Notebook to Accompany Genetics. Received awards Nobel in Medicine (2001), Rosenstiel Award, Genetics Society of America Medal, Komen Brinker Award, Albert Lasker Award, Massry Prize etc.
38. Sir Martin John Evans: Born-1 January 1941 AD. He is a British biologist. Oliver Smithis, Renato Capecchi and John Evans researched mammalian embryonic cells and DNA recombination. Discovered powerful technology to target and inactivate specific genes. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2007), Albert Losker Award etc.
39. George Smith: Born-10 March 1941 AD. He is an American biologist. Frances Arnold, George Smith and Gregory Winter discovered that antibodies produced by phage display could prevent autoimmune diseases and cure metastatic cancer. Awarded Nobel in Chemistry (2018).
40. Jules A. Hoffmann: Born on August 2, 1941. He is a French biologist. Beutler and Hoffman discovered the genetic strategy for activating innate immunity. Awards received include Nobel in Medicine (2011), Balzan Prize (2007), Keio Medical Science Prize (2010) etc.
42. Stanley B. Prusiner: Born – May 28, 1942. He is an American neurologist and biochemist. He discovered the prion, the pathogen responsible for Kreutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Awarded Nobel Prize in Medicine (1997) and Keio Medical Science Prize.
43. Tasuku Honjo: Born-27 January 1942 AD. He is a Japanese biochemist. Patrick Ellison and Tasuku Honjo researched a type of immune system protein to show that this protein causes disease remission by melting or exploding cancer tumors. The award received is the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2018).
44. Christiane Nusslein Volhard: Born-20 October 1942 AD. He is a German biologist. Wisehouse and Näslein Vollhard identified and classified fruit fly genes. Discovered the regulation of genes in embryonic development. Awarded Nobel Prize in Medicine (1995).
45. Tim Hunt: Born-19 February 1943 AD. He is a British chemist. Hartwell, Hunt, and Maxim Nurse discovered that specific genes control cell cycle function. Cell formation, growth and subsequent division are accomplished through the cell cycle. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2001), Royal Medal etc.
46. Ralph M. Steinman: Born – 14 January 1943 AD and Died – 30 September 2011 AD. He is a Canadian biologist. He pointed out that T-cells are dendritic cells. Elucidates the role of specific dendritic cells in acquired immunity. This discovery will contribute to the cure of allergies, organ transplants, type-1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis of the brain and spinal cord. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2011) and Canada Gardner International Prize (2003).
47. Michael Rosbash : Born – March 7, 1944 AD. He is an embryologist from Scotland. He is an American geneticist and chronobiologist. Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rossbys, and Michael Young explain the genetic and molecular basis of how biological clocks coordinate with cells and organisms during the 24-hour cycle of the planet. Award received is Nobel (2017).
48. Ian Wilmut: Born-7 July 1944 AD. He is an embryologist from Scotland. He was knighted in 2008. Researched embryology and genetics. In 1996, he gave birth to a sheep named Dolly from body cells. Awarded Nobel Prize in Medicine.
49. Yoshinori Ohsumi: Born-February 9, 1945 AD. He is a Japanese biologist. He researches the process of autophagy. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2016).
50 Jeffrey Conor Hall: Born-3 May 1945 AD. He is an American geneticist and chronobiologist. Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rossbys, and Michael Young explain the genetic and molecular basis of how biological clocks coordinate with cells and organisms during the 24-hour cycle of the planet. Received awards are Nobel (2017), Louisa Gross Horwitz Award, Canada Giardner Award, Massry Prize etc.
51. Eric F. Wieschaus: Born-June 8, 1947 AD. He is an American biologist. Wisehouse and Näslein Vollhard identified and classified fruit fly genes. Discovered the regulation of genes in embryonic development. Awards received are Nobel in Medicine (1995), Genetics Society of America Medal etc.
52. Francoise Barre Sinoussi: Born-30 July 1947 AD. He is a French virologist. Discovered in 1983 by scientists Barre Sinossi and Luc Montagnier. It has made the treatment of AIDS possible. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2008).
53. James Patrick Allison: Born on August 7, 1948. He is an American immunologist. Patrick Ellison and Tasuku Honjo researched a type of immune system protein to show that this protein causes disease remission by melting or exploding cancer tumors. The award received is the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2018). Dr. Siddique Publications
54. Elizabeth H. Blackburn: Born- 26 November March 1948 AD. He is an Australian-born American biochemist. In 1980, he discovered that the telomeres of chromosomes contain a specific DNA. This DNA prevents chromosome breakage. Awarded Nobel Prize in Medicine (2009) and Albert Lasker Award.
55. Sir Paul Maxime Nurse: Born-25 January 1949 AD. He is a British geneticist. Hartwell, Hunt, and Maxim Nurse discovered that specific genes control cell cycle function. Cell formation, growth and subsequent division are accomplished through the cell cycle. Awards received include Nobel in Medicine (2001), EMBO Membership etc.
56. Michael W. Young: Born-March 28, 1949 AD. He is an American biologist. He is researching genetically controlled sleep patterns and insomnia. Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rossbys, and Michael Young explain the genetic and molecular basis of how biological clocks coordinate with cells and organisms during the 24-hour cycle of the planet. Received awards are Nobel (2017), Louisa Gross Horwitz Award, Canada Giardner Award, Massry Prize etc.
57. Michael Houghton: Born – 1949 AD. He is a British medical scientist. Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Moen Rice explain liver cancer, cirrhosis and hepatitis-C virus. Awards received include the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2020) and the DeBakey Clinical Medical Award.
58. Gregory Winter: Born – 14 April 1951 AD. He is an American molecular biologist. Frances Arnold, George Smith and Gregory Winter discovered that antibodies produced by phage display could prevent autoimmune diseases and cure metastatic cancer. Awards received include Nobel in Chemistry (2018), Colworth Medal, EMBO Member, Louis Jeantet Prize, Knight Bachelor, Royal Medal etc.
59. Barry J. Marshall: Born-30 September 1951 AD. He is an Australian medical scientist. Warren and Marshall discovered the bacteria Helicobacter pylori and discovered the bacteria’s role in causing gastritis and peptic ulcers. Awards received include Nobel in Medicine (2005), Lasker Award, Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter, Buchanan Medal, Prince Mahidol Award, Keio Medical Science Prize etc.
60. Charles Moen Rice: Born-25 August 1952 AD. He is an American virologist. Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Moen Rice explain liver cancer, cirrhosis and hepatitis-C virus. Awards received are the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2020) and the DeBakey Clinical Medical Award.
61. Jack W. Szostak: Born on November 9, 1952. He is a Canadian-American biologist. Scientists Blackburn, Shostak and Greider discovered how telomeres and telomerase enzymes contribute to chromosome protection. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2009).
62. Sir Peter John Ratcliffe: Born-14 May 1954. He is a British doctor. William Kelin, Peter John Ratcliffe and Greg Semenza discovered the mechanisms of cellular oxygen sensing and adaptation to available oxygen. They explain the role of regulating gene activity in response to different oxygen levels. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2019). Dr. Siddique Publications
63. Gregg L. Semeza: Born-12 July 1956 AD. He is an American doctor. William Kelin, Peter John Ratcliffe and Greg Semenza discovered the mechanisms of cellular oxygen sensing and adaptation to available oxygen. They explain the role of regulating gene activity in response to different oxygen levels. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2019).
64. Frances Arnold: Born-25 July 1956 AD. He is an American chemical engineer. Frances Arnold, George Smith and Gregory Winter discovered that antibodies produced by phage display could prevent autoimmune diseases and cure metastatic cancer. Awards received include Nobel in Chemistry (2018), Garvan Olin Medal, FASEB Award, Draper Prize, Millennium Technology Prize etc.
65. William G. Kaelin: Born – November 23, 1957. He is an American doctor. William Kellin, Peter John Ratcliffe and Greg Semenza discovered the mechanisms of cellular oxygen sensing and adaptation to available oxygen. They explain the role of regulating gene activity in response to different oxygen levels. Received Nobel Prize in Medicine (2019) and Albert Lasker Award. 66. Bruce A. Beutler: Born – 29 December 1957 AD. He is an American immunologist and geneticist. Beutler and Hoffman discovered the genetic strategy for activating innate immunity. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2011) and Albany Medical Center Prize.
67. Carol W. Greider : Born – April 15, 1961 AD. He is an American biologist. Scientists Blackburn, Shostak and Greider discovered how telomeres and telomerase enzymes contribute to chromosome protection. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2009).
68. David Jay Julius: Born – November 4, 1955. He is an American biochemist. David Julius and Ardem Pataputian discovered temperature and touch receptors in cells. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2021).
69. David Jay Julius: Born – 2 October 1967 AD. He is a Lebanese molecular biologist. David Julius and Ardem Pataputian discovered temperature and touch receptors in cells. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2021).
70. Svante Paabo : Born – 20 April 1955 AD. He is a Swedish evolutionary geneticist. He discovered how the human immune system responds to bacterial infections. His books are – Neanderthal Man, In Search of Lost Genomes, How the E19 Protein of Adenoviruses. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine (2022).
71. Drew Weissman: Born – September 7, 1959. He is an American medical scientist. Drew Wazman and Catalin Carrico discovered that the nitrogen of nucleosides changes in alkaline reactions. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2023).
72. Katalin Kariko: Born – 17 January 1955 AD. He is an American biochemist. Drew Wazman and Catalin Carrico discovered that the nitrogen of nucleosides changes in alkaline reactions. Awarded Nobel in Medicine (2023).

A trinucleotide sequence located in a tRNA molecule is an anticodon. It is located at the anticodon site of tRNA. It is positioned complementary to the triplet codon located in the mRNA molecule. If the codon of the mRNA molecule is 5-AGU-3, the anticodon of the tRNA molecule will be 3-UCA-5. Since the ideal genetic code consists of 61 sense codons, 61 types of tRNA are required for pairing a codon along a tRNA.
Some anticodons
UGA→ACU, CUC→GAG, AUG→UAC, GUC→CAG, UCA→AGU, ACU→UGA, GCA→CGU, UAU→AUA, CAC→GUG, GAC→CUG

The code that carries the hereditary characteristics of an organism is called genetic code. The code formed by the combination of three adjacent nitrogen bases in the DNA molecule is called the genetic code. It is also called mRNA code. The genetic code is the biochemical basis of heredity. Scientist Francis Crick proved that the genetic code is a triplet or 3-letter code. Nirenberg was able to synthesize artificial mRNA using poly U (polyuridylic acid) in a cell-free or in vitro system. Indian scientist Hargobind Khorana synthetically synthesized the 5-GUGUGUGUGU-3 nucleotide chain and used it to create the valine-cysteine valine-cysteine polypeptide chain. Nirenberg and Hargobind Khorana won the Nobel Prize in 1969 for this discovery.

Types of genetic code
There are 3 types of genetic codon.
1. Sense codon: All the codons that provide the signal for the creation of amino acids are called sense codons. There are 61 sense codons for 20 amino acids.
2. Start codon: All the codons that initiate protein synthesis are called start codons or initial codons. The start codon is AUG. Amino acids that initiate protein synthesis are methionine (true cells) and formyl methionine (primitive cells).
3. Stop codon: Those codons that terminate protein synthesis are called termination or stop codons. The stop codons are UAA, UAG and UGA. They do not provide any signal for the formation of amino acids. Hence they are called non sense codons.

Number of codons
If three nitrogen bases form a code, the arrangement or assembly of four nitrogen bases will be 4×4×4=64. That is, the triplet codon number is 64. 64 codes can code for 20 amino acids. The number of functional codons is 61 and termination codons are 3. In 1964, Nirenberg and Matthaei discovered 64 triplet codes for 20 amino acids.

Characteristics of the genetic code
1. Triplet Code: The genetic code is triplets. That is, the three nitrogenous bases carry the code or signal for amino acids to form proteins. In 1954, scientist George Gamow proved that the genetic code is a triplet or 3-letter code. Eg AGU, AGC, AGA, AGG etc.
2. Genetic code is continuous: The genetic code works continuously without interruption. That is, there are no extra nucleotides or gaps between two adjacent codons. Like-GUUGUCGUAGUG.
3. Genetic code is non-overlapping: The three nitrogen bases of the genetic code are never arranged in an overlapping or overlapping manner. (If the genetic code overlaps, four amino acids will be specified by 6 nitrogen bases and seven by 9 nitrogen bases. On the other hand, if the genetic code is not overlapped, two amino acids will be specified by 6 nitrogen bases and three amino acids will be specified by 9 nitrogen bases). In 1965, scientist Hargobind Khorana demonstrated that the nitrogen bases of the genetic code are non-overlapping. For example – CGUCGCCGA genetic code is universal: the genetic code of all organisms on earth is the same. That is, the genetic code never changes depending on the type or structure of the organism. For example, the AUA genetic code carries the signal for the amino acid called methionine in all organisms on earth, including viruses and bacteria.
5. Genetic Code Has Polarity: Genetic codes contain genetic information from DNA in a specific sequence. The genetic code always carries signals in the 5→3 pathway. So the polarity of the genetic code is 5→3.
6. Genetic Code Ambiguity or Degeneracy: When a genetic code carries the signal of an amino acid, it is called degeneracy. For example, a code carrying the signal for tryptophin is UGG.
7. Genetic code is degenerate: If more than one genetic code carries the signal of a single amino acid, it is called polymorphism. For example, six codes UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU and AGC carry the signal of serine.

1. Triplet Code: The genetic code is triplets. That is, the three nitrogenous bases carry the code or signal for amino acids to form proteins. In 1954, scientist George Gamow proved that the genetic code is a triplet or 3-letter code. Eg AGU, AGC, AGA, AGG etc.
2. Genetic code is continuous: The genetic code works continuously without interruption. That is, there are no extra nucleotides or gaps between two adjacent codons. Like-GUUGUCGUAGUG.
3. Genetic code is non-overlapping: The three nitrogen bases of the genetic code are never arranged in an overlapping or overlapping manner. (If the genetic code overlaps, four amino acids will be specified by 6 nitrogen bases and seven by 9 nitrogen bases. On the other hand, if the genetic code is not overlapped, two amino acids will be specified by 6 nitrogen bases and three amino acids will be specified by 9 nitrogen bases). In 1965, scientist Hargobind Khorana demonstrated that the nitrogen bases of the genetic code are non-overlapping. For example – CGUCGCCGA genetic code is universal: the genetic code of all organisms on earth is the same. That is, the genetic code never changes depending on the type or structure of the organism. For example, the AUA genetic code carries the signal for the amino acid called methionine in all organisms on earth, including viruses and bacteria.
5. Genetic Code Has Polarity: Genetic codes contain genetic information from DNA in a specific sequence. The genetic code always carries signals in the 5→3 pathway. So the polarity of the genetic code is 5→3.
6. Genetic Code Ambiguity or Degeneracy: When a genetic code carries the signal of an amino acid, it is called degeneracy. For example, a code carrying the signal for tryptophin is UGG.
7. Genetic code is degenerate: If more than one genetic code carries the signal of a single amino acid, it is called polymorphism. For example, six codes UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU and AGC carry the signal of serine.