Category: Biology Second Paper

The clear, granular and jelly-like semi-fluid substance inside the nuclear membrane is called nucleoplasm or karyolymph. It is called protoplasmic juice or nucleo juice of nucleus. It is mainly composed of proteins. It contains DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, phosphoprotein, histone protein, nucleotide triphosphatase, nucleoside phosphorylase, kinase, dehydrogenase, endonuclease, lipid and mineral salts.
Function: It contains nucleolus and chromosomes. Helps in various biological functions. The nucleoplasm serves as the main site of enzyme activity.

The nuclear envelope consists of octagonal pores. These pores are called nuclear pores. Nuclear membrane has 300 pores. The number of nuclear pores per square micrometer is 40-145. The hole-to-hole distance is 1500 Å. The diameter of each pore is 9 nm. The pores are constricted and expanded by a protein network.
The nuclear pore contains the annulus. The annulus contains 8 granular edge proteins. Peripheral proteins are linked by spokes. At the center of the nuclear pore is a large protein called a transporter. The transporter is attached to the envelope by anchor proteins. Proteins can consist of subunits and fibers. Inside the nucleus is a fibrous cage. Proteins are attached to the fiber cage. Peripheral proteins associate with the transporter to form a wheel-like structure.
Function: It maintains contact with the cytoplasm and transports materials. The product passes through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.

The membrane that covers the nucleus is called nuclear membrane or nuclear membrane. It is called the envelope, nucleolemma or karyotheca. The nuclear membrane is bilayered. Outer cover and inner cover. It is composed of phospholipids. The space between the two envelopes is called the perinuclear space. The distance between perinuclear spaces is 10-15 nm. Blisters originating from within the nuclear envelope are called nuclear blisters. The nuclear membrane contains nucleoplasmin. Nucleoplasmin mediates the exchange of various substances.
Function: The main function of the envelope is to separate the nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin from the cytoplasm. Endoplasmic reticulum keeps the nucleus connected. Necessary materials transport from inside to outside and from outside to inside.

The nucleus is usually round. But can be ellipsoidal, flattened, fusiform (rounded), toothed etc. Spherical nucleus is one micron in diameter. Cells with more cytoplasm have larger nuclei and cells with less cytoplasm have smaller nuclei.

Normally each cell has a nucleus. However, cells of Vaucheria, Botrydium, Sphaeroplea, Penicillium, Opalina, Osteoclasts and Paramecium are more numerous. Multinucleated plant cells are called sinocytes. Animal cells with multiple nuclei are called syncytium. Stem cells, stem cells and mammalian red blood cells (except camels) do not have a nucleus. Nucleus may occupy 10-15% of cell space. About 90% of sperm are nuclei.

Dutch scientist Anthony von Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe the lumen or nucleus in the red blood cells of salmon. In 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus from Rasna leaves. In 1882, scientist Strasburger gave the idea of ​​nucleoplasm. In 1953, scientist J. Hammerling sheds light on the function of hereditary characteristics of the nucleus.

The name Nucleus is derived from the Latin word Nux-nut. The dense, opaque and spherical organelle located in the protoplasm of the cell which carries the genetic material and controls the vital functions of the cell is called the nucleus. It is also called the nucleus, nucleus and brain of the cell. It is the largest cell organelle.

1. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are membrane-enclosed organelles.
2. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts can replicate themselves.
3. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own ribosomes.
4. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA.
5. ETCs exist in both mitochondria and chloroplasts and generate ATP.
6. In both mitochondria and chloroplasts, one form of energy is converted into another form of energy.

Cells that are not completely dependent on the nucleus for ATP and protein production are called semi-autonomous cells. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles. Because they can produce ATP by their own proteins and enzymes.
1. DNA: Both chloroplasts and mitochondria contain circular DNA with a length of 45 micrometers. This DNA produces proteins and enzymes. These elements are the raw materials for making ATP.
2. Ribosomes: Both chloroplasts and mitochondria contain 70S ribosomes. It synthesizes proteins.
3. Protein synthesis: Studies have shown that DNA in both chloroplasts and mitochondria provides the code for mATP, tATP, rATP and protein synthesis for the cell.
Chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes. It can make proteins and enzymes that are used to make ATP. Hence chloroplast and mitochondria are called semi-autonomous organelles or semi-autonomous organelles.

1. Chloroplasts of green plants produce O2 during photosynthesis. Plants and animals take in O2 and release CO2 in the process of respiration. As a result, the atmosphere of the environment is purified.
2. Green plants release water vapor in the process of respiration. This water vapor condenses and forms precipitation.
3. Plants provide shade and keep the environment cool. It makes the living environment happy.
4. Green gardens and meadows create a unique environment.
5. Green plants increase soil fertility.
6. High chloroplast content in plants increases fruit and crop production. As a result, the food demand is met. In this orderly condition prevails in the living environment.
7. Green grass is used as animal feed. Cattle consuming green grass have higher milk and meat production capacity.
8. Green algae produce large amounts of oxygen in the water of ponds, reservoirs, rivers, seas and oceans. It keeps the water environment clean.
9. Green chlorella is used to keep the bathing environment clean. Chlorella algae produce oxygen.
10. Green forests meet demand for wood and fuel. Necessary furniture is made from wood.