Pancreas is a mixed gland. It looks like a leaf or a cylinder or a drum or a pepper. This gland consists of three parts. Head, body and tail. In cellular structure it consists of two parts. Duct part or acinus and duct part or islets of Langerhans. Its length is 20 cm and width is 5 cm. Small ducts emerge from the pancreatic gland. These ducts join together to form the Wirsang duct. The Wirsang duct then enters the duodenum through the ampulla of Vater. Pancreas is divided into several segments called lobules. Between the lobules there are clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. Islets of Langerhans are composed of about 1 million cells. It contains four types of cells. Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta. The pancreas secretes 500-1200 ml of juice every 24 hours. It is colorless, alkaline and liquid. Its pH is 7.5-8.5.

1. Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver is called hepatitis. Jaundice is caused by the hepatitis virus.
2. Hepatic encephalopathy: Hepatic encephalopathy occurs if the liver fails to remove toxins from the blood. People go into coma or die from this disease.
3. Hepatomegaly: Abnormally enlarged liver is called hepatomegaly.
4. Bud-Kyari: When a cyst occurs in the hepatic vein that supplies blood to the liver, it is called Bud-Kyari.
5. Biliary cirrhosis: Biliary cirrhosis is an autoimmune disease of the liver.

1. Protein metabolism
(i) Production of plasma proteins: Liver cells produce plasma proteins such as albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, prothrombin, transferrin, seroplasmin, photoprotein etc. from amino acids.
(ii) Hormone synthesis: Liver synthesizes angiotensinogen hormone. This hormone increases blood pressure.
(iii) De-amination: Liver breaks down excess and unused amino acids by de-amination process to convert keto acids and amine radicals.
2. Carbohydrate metabolism
(i) Glycogenesis: The process in which glycogen is produced from glucose is called glycogenesis. The liver regulates blood glucose levels. Hexose sugars including galactose, fructose are stored as glycogen.
(ii) Glycogenolysis: In this process glucose is produced by breaking down glycogen stored in the liver. This process is influenced by the hormones epinephrine and glucagon.
(iii) Glyconeogenesis: The biochemical process by which glucose is produced from non-saccharides is called glyconeogenesis. When the level of glucose in the body is too low, glucose is produced from non-saccharides such as amino acid, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, glyceryl etc.
(iv) Lipogenesis: In this process the liver converts excess glucose into triglycerides. The triglycerides produced are stored as fat in the cells. Triglycerides are one of the main causes of heart disease and stroke.
3. Lipid metabolism
(i) Fatty acids are broken down in the liver to produce ATP. ATP is used in muscle expansion and relaxation.
(ii) Liver synthesizes lipoproteins. Lipoproteins regulate the movement of fatty acids, cholesterol and triglycerides into cells.
(iii) Liver stores cholesterol. Cholesterol produces gallstones called sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate.
(iv) Ketones are produced by oxidation of fatty acids and glycerol in the liver.
(v) Sodium glycocholate and sodium tyrocholate break down astringent food into tiny granules like soap suds. This process is called emulsification.
(vi) Phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins, cholesterol etc. are analyzed under the influence of liver juice.
(vii) Glucose is produced from stored fat in the absence of sugar.
4. Nucleic acid metabolism: Purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are analyzed with the help of liver cells. Purines are broken down to form uric acid and pyrimidines to form urea.
5. Breakdown of Hormones: Liver juice regulates the process of breaking down all kinds of hormones. Hormones like estrogen, cortical, testosterone etc. are released with sulfuric acid. Testosterone and androsterone hormones are rapidly destroyed and hormones such as insulin, glucagon, estrogen, progesterone, adrenal, thyroxine etc. are destroyed slowly.
6. Protection of the body: The kaffer cells of the liver protect the body by eating bacteria and other microbes in the process of phagocytosis.
7. Production of Red Blood Cells: Liver cells of babies produce red blood cells. Again, this removes almost dead red blood cells.
8. Bilirubin formation: breaks down hemoglobin in the blood to produce heme and globin. The green colored biliverdin is produced from the frozen part. Later, biliverdin forms yellow colored bilirubin. Excess bilirubin in the body causes jaundice and the skin turns yellow.
9. Detoxification: Liver cells destroy and remove harmful substances from the body through oxidation, oxidation and analysis. Excess drugs are removed from the body.
10. Preparation of Urea: Urea is produced from amino acids by deamination process under the influence of liver juice.
11. Blood protein production: Blood albumin, globulin etc. proteins are produced in the liver.
12. Blood coagulation: Fibrinogen and prothrombin are produced by liver cell activity. Fibrinogen and prothrombin help in blood clotting.
13. Enzyme production: Liver produces catalase enzyme. Catalase enzyme breaks down hydrogen peroxide to produce sodium and oxygen. It destroys the body’s toxic substances.
14. Heat energy production: Heat energy is generated by oxidation of triglycerides and fatty acids in the liver.
15. Synthesis of blood components: Liver produces blood clotting factors, imine factors and platelet-forming vitreous.
16. Cholesterol Production: Cholesterol is produced in the liver by eating fatty foods. Cholesterol causes heart attack and stroke.
17. Transamination: In the transamination process, the nitrogenous part of an amino acid is replaced by a sugar to produce a new amino acid.
18. Keeping blood free of bacteria: Kaffir cells destroy blood bacteria. Blood is free of bacteria.

About 500 types of biochemical functions are completed in the liver. Therefore liver is called organic laboratory
Storage role of liver
1. Glycogen storage: When blood glucose levels are high, insulin produced by the islets of Langhans stores the excess glucose as glycogen. About 100 grams of glycogen are stored in the liver. Glycogen is changed back to glucose as needed by the body.
2. Fat storage: All the sugars that are not used in the human body and are not stored as glycogen, the liver cells convert them into fat and store them.
3. Vitamin storage: Liver cells store vitamins A, D, E and K in the human body. It also stores some amount of nicotinic acid (B12) and folic acid.
4. Blood storage: Although the ducts of the liver carry blood, they also act as reservoirs for storing a large amount of blood. The liver stores about 1500 cubic cm of blood.
5. Bile secretion and storage: Liver cells secrete and store bile. The liver secretes 400-800 ml of bile per day.
6. Iron storage: Hemoglobin in blood contains heme and globin. Heme contains iron called ferritin. Liver ferritin stores iron.
7. Mineral salt storage: The liver stores minerals such as zinc, copper, cobalt, molybdenum, ions, potassium etc. in the human body. The liver ion produces new red blood cells in the bone marrow.

Metabolic role of the liver
1. Protein metabolism
(i) Production of plasma proteins: Liver cells produce plasma proteins such as albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, prothrombin, transferrin, seroplasmin, photoprotein etc. from amino acids.
(ii) Hormone synthesis: Liver synthesizes angiotensinogen hormone. This hormone increases blood pressure.
(iii) De-amination: Liver breaks down excess and unused amino acids by de-amination process to convert keto acids and amine radicals.
2. Carbohydrate metabolism
(i) Glycogenesis: The process in which glycogen is produced from glucose is called glycogenesis. The liver regulates blood glucose levels. Hexose sugars including galactose, fructose are stored as glycogen.
(ii) Glycogenolysis: In this process glucose is produced by breaking down glycogen stored in the liver. This process is influenced by the hormones epinephrine and glucagon.
(iii) Glyconeogenesis: The biochemical process by which glucose is produced from non-saccharides is called glyconeogenesis. When the level of glucose in the body is too low, glucose is produced from non-saccharides such as amino acid, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, glyceryl etc.
(iv) Lipogenesis: In this process the liver converts excess glucose into triglycerides. The triglycerides produced are stored as fat in the cells. Triglycerides are one of the main causes of heart disease and stroke.
3. Lipid metabolism
(i) Fatty acids are broken down in the liver to produce ATP. ATP is used in muscle expansion and relaxation.
(ii) Liver synthesizes lipoproteins. Lipoproteins regulate the movement of fatty acids, cholesterol and triglycerides into cells.
(iii) Liver stores cholesterol. Cholesterol produces gallstones called sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate.
(iv) Ketones are produced by oxidation of fatty acids and glycerol in the liver.
(v) Sodium glycocholate and sodium tyrocholate break down astringent food into tiny granules like soap suds. This process is called emulsification.
(vi) Phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins, cholesterol etc. are analyzed under the influence of liver juice.
(vii) Glucose is produced from stored fat in the absence of sugar.
4. Nucleic acid metabolism: Purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are analyzed with the help of liver cells. Purines are broken down to form uric acid and pyrimidines to form urea.
5. Breakdown of Hormones: Liver juice regulates the process of breaking down all kinds of hormones. Hormones like estrogen, cortical, testosterone etc. are released with sulfuric acid. Testosterone and androsterone hormones are rapidly destroyed and hormones such as insulin, glucagon, estrogen, progesterone, adrenal, thyroxine etc. are destroyed slowly.
6. Protection of the body: The kaffer cells of the liver protect the body by eating bacteria and other microbes in the process of phagocytosis.
7. Production of Red Blood Cells: Liver cells of babies produce red blood cells. Again, this removes almost dead red blood cells.
8. Bilirubin formation: breaks down hemoglobin in the blood to produce heme and globin. The green colored biliverdin is produced from the frozen part. Later, biliverdin forms yellow colored bilirubin. Excess bilirubin in the body causes jaundice and the skin turns yellow.
9. Detoxification: Liver cells destroy and remove harmful substances from the body through oxidation, oxidation and analysis. Excess drugs are removed from the body.
10. Preparation of Urea: Urea is produced from amino acids by deamination process under the influence of liver juice.
11. Blood protein production: Blood albumin, globulin etc. proteins are produced in the liver.
12. Blood coagulation: Fibrinogen and prothrombin are produced by liver cell activity. Fibrinogen and prothrombin help in blood clotting.
13. Enzyme production: Liver produces catalase enzyme. Catalase enzyme breaks down hydrogen peroxide to produce sodium and oxygen. It destroys the body’s toxic substances.
14. Heat energy production: Heat energy is generated by oxidation of triglycerides and fatty acids in the liver.
15. Synthesis of blood components: Liver produces blood clotting factors, imine factors and platelet-forming vitreous.
16. Cholesterol Production: Cholesterol is produced in the liver by eating fatty foods. Cholesterol causes heart attack and stroke.
17. Transamination: In the transamination process, the nitrogenous part of an amino acid is replaced by a sugar to produce a new amino acid.
18. Keeping blood free of bacteria: Kaffir cells destroy blood bacteria. Blood is free of bacteria.

1. Glycogen storage: When blood glucose levels are high, insulin produced by the islets of Langhans stores the excess glucose as glycogen. About 100 grams of glycogen are stored in the liver. Glycogen is changed back to glucose as needed by the body.
2. Fat storage: All the sugars that are not used in the human body and are not stored as glycogen, the liver cells convert them into fat and store them.
3. Vitamin storage: Liver cells store vitamins A, D, E and K in the human body. It also stores some amount of nicotinic acid (B12) and folic acid.
4. Blood storage: Although the ducts of the liver carry blood, they also act as reservoirs for storing a large amount of blood. The liver stores about 1500 cubic cm of blood.
5. Bile secretion and storage: Liver cells secrete and store bile. The liver secretes 400-800 ml of bile per day.
6. Iron storage: Hemoglobin in blood contains heme and globin. Heme contains iron called ferritin. Liver ferritin stores iron.
7. Mineral salt storage: The liver stores minerals such as zinc, copper, cobalt, molybdenum, ions, potassium etc. in the human body. The liver ion produces new red blood cells in the bone marrow.

The juice secreted from the liver is called pitta or pittrasa. It is a dark green to yellowish liquid. It has a pH of 7.5-8.6 and a bitter taste.
The components of bile are:
1. Water: Bile contains 97-98% water.
2. Bile Salts: Bile contains 6% bile salts. Bile salts are sodium taurocholate, sodium glycocholate etc.
3. Bile pigments: Bile contains 3% bile pigments. Bile pigments are bilirubin and biliverdin.
4. Fat: Bile contains 0.82% fat.
5. Inorganic salts: Bile contains 0.8% inorganic salts. Inorganic salts are sodium, potassium and calcium.
6. Cholesterol: Bile contains 0.38% cholesterol.
Bile
The juice secreted from the liver is called pitta or pittrasa. It is a dark green to yellowish liquid. It has a pH of 7.5-8.6 and a bitter taste.

The liver appears bifurcated externally as it is covered by a falciform membrane. The liver is divided into four distinct lobes. Right lobe, left lobe, caudate and quadrate lobe. The right segment is the largest, the left segment is the smallest. The right lobe is six times larger than the left lobe. The caudate and quadrate segments are square-like. The liver is covered by a membrane called Gison’s capsule. This membrane divides the liver into lobules or segments. Liver cells are arranged in each lobule like the spokes of a wheel. The space between adjacent lobules is called sinusoid. Between each lobule is a central vein. The right and left hepatic ducts together form the common hepatic/hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct joins with the common bile duct to form the common bile duct. The common bile duct enters the duodenum through the ampulla of Vater.

(i) Liver is the largest gland in the human body.
(ii) It lies below the diaphragm and above the abdomen.
(iii) It is dark brown and triangular in appearance.
(iv) Liver weighs 1400-1600 gm in adult male and 1200-1400 gm in female.
(v) Liver is divided into four unequal lobes. Right lobe, left lobe, caudate and quadrate lobe.
(vi) Right segment is largest, left segment is smallest. The right lobe is six times larger than the left lobe. The caudate and quadrate segments are square-like.
(vii) Liver is covered by membrane called Gison’s capsule. This membrane divides the liver into lobules or segments.
(viii) Liver cells are arranged like spokes of a wheel in each lobule.
(ix) The space between adjacent lobules is called sinusoid.
(x) There is a central vein between each lobule.
(xi) Right and left hepatic ducts together form the common hepatic/hepatic duct.
(xii) Common hepatic duct joins with common bile duct to form common bile duct. The common bile duct enters the duodenum through the ampulla of Vater.
(xiii) About 500 types of biochemical functions are carried out in the liver. Hence the liver is called the biochemistry.
(xiv) Liver performs storage and metabolic functions in the human body.

Liver is the largest gland in the human body. It is located below the diaphragm and above the abdomen. Dark brown and triangular in appearance. Adult male liver weighs 1400-1600 grams and female 1200-1400 grams.

Saliva is secreted from salivary glands. Lalars contains 95.5% water and 0.5% electrolytes and protein. A person secretes 1200-1500 ml of saliva every day. When the secretion of saliva is reduced, the lips become dry, a condition known as xerostomia.
(i) Taste: Saliva helps the tongue to taste. People with low salivation suffer from dysgeusia.
(ii) Softening and liquefying of food: Mucin in saliva softens and liquefies the food.
(iii) Destruction of microbes: Lysozyme destroys bacteria or microbes.
(iv) Food digestion: Tylin and maltase enzymes digest sugary food.
(v) Dehydration: When the body becomes dehydrated, salivary secretion decreases and thirst is felt. Water balance is maintained by drinking water.
(vi) As a buffer: Mucin present in saliva, bicarbonate and phosphate act as buffers.
(vii) Excretion: Urea, heavy metals, thiocyanate, antibiotics, morphine, ethyl alcohol etc. are excreted from the body through saliva.