1. Source of Energy: Green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis. chemical
Uses energy to produce carbohydrates. These sugars then come from plants to animals. For this reason sugar is called bio-fuel. Dr. Abu Bakr Siddiq
2. stored food
(i) Starch is the main stored food in the plant body. Carbohydrates are stored in the form of starch in the seeds, fruits and tubers of plants.
(ii) Sucrose, fructose, raffinose etc. are stored as stored food in the plant body.
(iv) Glycogen is stored as stored food in all animal, bacterial and fungal cells.
(v) Excess carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
(vi) Onion, garlic and dalia contain carbohydrates in the form of inulin.
3. structural elements
(i) Carbohydrates 50-80% of dry weight of plant body. It is the main constituent of the plant body.
(ii) Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic acid etc. form the cell wall of plants.
(iii) Chitin forms the cell wall of fungi and the body wall of arthropods.
(iv) Peptidoglycan forms the cell wall of bacteria and cyanobacteria.
4. Formation of organic compounds: Pentose sugars act as building blocks of organic molecules such as DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP, NAD, NADP, FAD, GTP, GDP etc. Dr. Abu Bakr Siddiq
5. Industry: Sugar is used to make raw materials for various industries including paper and textile industries.
6. Fulfillment of basic needs: It plays an important role in fulfilling the basic needs of people like food, material, medical care, shelter etc.
7. Strengthening the body: The main component of xylem tissue is sugar. Xylem provides rigidity to the plant body. Due to this, the plant does not break in storms. Cellulose gives plants strength and protection and carries loads.
8. Metabolism: Carbohydrates help in the metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids in the body. It speeds up the process of peristalsis. Fatty oxidation does not occur in the absence of carbohydrates.
9. As a lubricant: Hyaluronic acid is used as a lubricant or lubricant in bone joints.
10. Anticoagulants: Heparin is a polysaccharide. Heparin acts as an anticoagulant factor in the body. It prevents blood clotting. So blood can move inside the blood vessels.
11. Excretion of waste products: Carbohydrates like fiber help in the elimination of waste products from the body. Faeces play an important role in fertilization. Dr. Abu Bakr Siddiq
12. Regulation of brain function: Carbohydrates give energy to the brain to think, act and function.
13. Nucleic Acids: Ribose and deoxyribose are pentose sugars. Pentose sugars form DNA and RNA.
14. Formation of glycocalyx: Carbohydrates are attached to proteins to form glycoproteins and lipids to form glycolipids. Glycoproteins and glycolipids together are called glycocalyx.
15. Antigen production: Different antigens of human blood group are produced from carbohydrates. Antigens are made up of glycoproteins and enhance immunity. Dr. Abu Bakr Siddiq
16. Biofuels: Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in the body. It acts as bio-fuel in the body. Carbohydrates are oxidized by oxygen to form water and CO2. It provides energy to cells. 50-80% of the body’s energy source is carbohydrates. This energy content is 4.1 Kcal/gm.
17. Co-enzymes: ATP, FAD, NAD, NADP etc. are the structural parts of co-enzymes.
18. Body building and repair: Carbohydrates provide extra protein to the body. Excess protein builds and repairs the organism’s body.
19. Hormones and reproduction: Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) and Leutinizing hormone (LH) are formed by glycoproteins. It participates in animal reproduction.
20. Fatty Oxidation: Fatty oxidation is very important for the organism. Carbohydrate Op for Fatty Oxidation

New substances that are produced from carbohydrates are called derivatives. Carbohydrates are sugar-like substances and most are natural. Some of the carbohydrates are:
1. Saccharin or Sweet-N-Low: Saccharin or Sweet-N-Low is a primitive artificial sweetener. It is 300 times sweeter than sugar.
2. Glucosamine: Glucosamine is a well-known amino sugar in the human body. It is used in the production of glycosylated lipids and proteins. It polymerizes to form chitin. Fungi and arthropods contain chitin.
3. Galactosamine: Galactosamine plays a role in cell-to-cell interactions. It is the main component of cartilage.
4. Galactosamine adenosine: Galactosamine adenosine is an important component of DNA and RNA.
5. Sugar alcohol: Sugar alcohol is a sweet substance. Diabetics use it instead of sugar.
6. Amino sugar heparin: Amino sugar heparin is a granular substance. It resides in the mast cells of the arterial wall. It prevents blood clotting. Dr. Abu Bakr Siddiq
7. Sialic acid: Sialic acid is a sugar amine. It keeps people physically and mentally healthy.
8. Chondroitin sulfate: Chondroitin sulfate is a component of cartilage. It prevents stress.
9. Ascorbic acid or vitamin-C: Ascorbic acid or vitamin-C prevents scurvy.
10. Sucralose or Spinda: Sucralose or Spinda is an artificial sweetener. It is 600 times sweeter than sugar.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharide is formed from the Greek word mono meaning one and saccharin meaning sugar. Monosaccharide means a single sugar. Carbohydrates that do not yield any other simple carbohydrate units when broken down or analyzed are called monosaccharides. Their common symbol is CnH2nOn. Monosaccharides have 3-10 carbons. Monosaccharides have a free aldehyde group (-CHO) at carbon 1 or a ketone group (>C=O) at carbon 2, so they are called reducing sugars or reducing sugars. Monosaccharides with aldehyde groups are called aldoses and monosaccharides with ketone groups are called ketoses. Aldehyde and ketone groups are reducing groups and sugars containing reducing groups are called reducing sugars.

Characteristics of monosaccharides
(i) It is a simple sugar.
(ii) It is photoactive.
(iii) It is a small molecule.
(iv) Its molecular weight is less than 10,000 daltons.
(v) It has a sweet taste.
(vi) It is granular and soluble in water.
(vii) It contains aldehyde and ketone groups.
(viii) It is called aldose or ketose sugar.
(ix) It is a repulsive sugar.

Classification of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides can be divided into two groups based on the aldehyde or ketone group.
1. Aldose: Monosaccharides containing aldehyde groups are called aldoses. Such as glucose, erythrose, ribose, mannose etc. Dr. Siddiq Publications
2. Ketose: Monosaccharides containing ketone group are called ketose. Such as fructose, erythrulose, ribulose, dihydroxyacetone etc.

The different types of monosaccharides based on the number of carbons are-
1. Triose: Monosaccharides with three carbons are called triose. A triose with an aldehyde group is called an aldotriose and a ketone group with a ketotriose. Its molecular symbol is C3H6O3. For example, glyceraldehyde, dihydroxy acetone etc.
2. Tetrose: A four-membered monosaccharide is called a tetrose. Its molecular symbol is C4H8O4. A tetrose with a four-carbon aldehyde group is called an aldotetrose and a ketone group with a ketotetrose. Eg-Erythrose, Thirose, Erythrolose etc. Dr. Siddiq Publications
3. Pentose: Five carbon monosaccharides are called pentoses. Its molecular symbol is C5H10O5. Ribose and deoxyribose are pentose sugars and form nucleotides and nucleic acids. Examples – ribulose, xylulose, arabinose, lyxose, ribose, deoxyribose etc. Dr. Siddiq Publications
4. Hexose: Monosaccharides with six carbons are called hexoses. Its molecular symbol is C6H12O6. Hexoses of aldehyde groups are called aldohexoses and hexoses of ketone groups are called ketohexoses. They are known as blood sugar. There are 16 types of hexoses. The abundant hexose is the glucose that provides energy to living cells. Examples – glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose etc.
5. Heptose: A monosaccharide with seven carbons is called heptose. Its molecular symbol is C7H14O7. Its number is very less. It plays an important role in photosynthesis. Pseudoheptulose, monoheptulose etc.
6. Octose: An eight carbon monosaccharide is called octose. Its molecular symbol is C8H26O8. eg glucooctose. Dr. Siddiq Publications
7. Nenose: A monosaccharide having nine carbons is called nenose. Its molecular symbol is C9H18O9. eg gluconanose.
8. Decose: A ten carbon monosaccharide is called decose. Its molecular symbol is C10H30O10. E.g. Glucodecose.

Disaccharide
Carbohydrates that break down or break down into two molecules of monosaccharides are called disaccharides. Their chemical symbol is C12H22O11. A condensation reaction between two monosaccharide molecules results in the removal of one molecule of H2O from two –OH groups to form a disaccharide. Both monosaccharide molecules of the disaccharide form new C-O-C bonds. The C-O-C bond formed is called a glycosidic bond. Disaccharides such as sucrose (table sugar), maltose, isomaltose, lactose (milk sugar), cellobiose, trehalose etc. When sucrose or sugar is broken down, glucose and fructose are obtained. Again, lactose is broken down to glucose and galactose. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Oligosaccharide
The word oligosaccharide is formed from the Greek words oligo meaning few and saccharin meaning sugar. Oligosaccharide means few sugars. Carbohydrates that break down or break down into a few molecules of monosaccharides (3-10 molecules) are called oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides or monomers are linked by glycosidic bonds to form oligosaccharides. The attachment of the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide to the hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide is called glycosidic linkage. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Properties of oligosaccharides
(i) Oligosaccharides are simple sugars.
(ii) It can be wet analyzed.
(iii) It is a small molecule.
(iv) Its molecular weight is less than 10,000 daltons.
(v) It has a sweet taste.
(vi) It is granular and soluble in water.
(vii) It is an insoluble sugar.

Some oligosaccharides
(i) Trisaccharides: Carbohydrates which break down or break down into three molecule monosaccharides are called trisaccharides. Such as – raffinose, rabinose, raminose and malizitose. Breaking down raffinose yields glucose, fructose and galactose. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(ii) Tetrasaccharides: Carbohydrates which break down or break down into four molecules of monosaccharides are called tetrasaccharides. Its chemical symbol is C24H42O21. Eg – Stachyose, Skardose etc. When stachyose is broken down, glucose, fructose and two molecules of galactose are obtained. Tetrasaccharides are found in plants of the Leguminosae and Labiatae families. Cucurbita pepo plant contains tetrasaccharides.
(iii) Pentasaccharides: Carbohydrates which break down or break down into monosaccharides of five molecules are called pentasaccharides. For example, verbose. The root of Verbescus thepus plant contains pentasaccharides.
(iv) Hexasaccharide: Carbohydrates composed of six monosaccharide molecules are called hexasaccharides. For example, α-Cyclodextrin.
(v) Heptasaccharides: Carbohydrates which are made up of seven molecules of monosaccharides are called heptasaccharides.
(vi) Octasaccharides: Carbohydrates which are composed of eight molecules of monosaccharides are called octasaccharides.
(vii) Nanasaccharides: Non-carbohydrate molecules composed of monosaccharides are called Nanasaccharides.
(viii) Decasaccharides: Carbohydrates which are composed of ten molecules of monosaccharides are called Decasaccharides.

Polysaccharide
Polysaccharide is formed from the Greek words poly meaning many and saccharin meaning sugar. Carbohydrates that break down or break down into many molecules (more than 10) of monosaccharides are called polysaccharides. Their common symbol is (C6H10O5)n. where 10 ≥ n ≤ 3000|

Properties of polysaccharides
(i) It is a complex sugar.
(ii) Its wet analysis yields numerous monosaccharide molecules.
(iii) It is a large molecule.
(iv) Its molecular weight is more than 10,000 daltons.
(v) It is not sweet in taste.
(vi) It is non-granular and insoluble in water.
(vii) It does not contain aldehyde and ketone groups.
(viii) It is an insoluble sugar.

1. Classification based on work

are divided into three categories based on function.
(i) Stored polysaccharides: All the carbohydrates that are stored in the body as stored food are called stored polysaccharides. For example, starch, glycogen, inulin, dextin, paramylam, livan etc. Starch is the main stored food in plants and glycogen in animals. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(ii) Structural polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which form the cell walls of plants are called structural polysaccharides. For example, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic acid, chitin, keratin sulfate etc. Cellulose is the main structural component of the cell wall.
(iii) Complex polysaccharides: Those polysaccharides which are composed of sugars and non-sugars are called complex polysaccharides. Such as mucopolysaccharide, agar, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin etc. Dr. Siddiq Publications
2. Structural classification
Polysaccharides are divided into two categories based on structure.
(i) Homopolysaccharides or Homoglycans: Carbohydrates that are composed of monosaccharides of the same type are called homopolysaccharides or homoglycans. For example, starch, cellulose, glycogen, inulin etc.
(ii) Heteropolysaccharides or Heteroglycans: Carbohydrates composed of two or more types of monosaccharides are called heteropolysaccharides or heteroglycans. Such as hemicellulose, mucopolysaccharide, pectin, chitin, agar etc.
3. Unit Based Classification: On the basis of structural unit polysaccharides are of several types-
(i) Glucosan: The polysaccharide formed from glucose is called glucosan.
(ii) Fructosan: The polysaccharide formed by fructose is called fructosan.
(iii) Galactasan: The polysaccharide formed by galactose is called galactasan.
(iv) Hexosan: A polysaccharide composed of six carbon monosaccharides is called hexosan.

1. Ribose
Ribose is a monosaccharide with five carbons. It is called D-ribose. Ribose was discovered by scientist Emil Fisher in 1891. Its molecular symbol is C5H10O5. Its melting point is 95 degrees Celsius. It is a reducing sugar. It is called aldopentose sugar as it contains aldehyde group. Capable of ribose oxidation. It reacts with Hcl to produce furfuric acid. Ribose acts as the building block of RNA. A purine or pyrimidine base combines with ribose to form a nucleoside. Nucleosides combine with inorganic phosphates to form nucleotides. Nucleotides are then combined to form RNA. Ribose helps in the formation of sugars in the photophosphorylation process. Ribose is attached to biomolecules like ATP, NAD+, NADP+, FAD, Co-A etc. Dr. Siddiq Publications
2. Ribulose
Ribulose is a five-carbon monosaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Its molecular symbol is C5H10O5. Since it contains a keto group, it is called a ketopentose sugar. Ribulose acts as a CO2 consumer in photosynthesis and produces ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate. Ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate is oxidized to form carboxyl compounds. Dr. Siddiq Publications
3. Deoxyribose
Deoxyribose is a five-carbon monosaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Its molecular signaling
C5H10O4. It was discovered by scientist Phoebus Levene in 1929. It is called aldopentose sugar as it contains aldehyde group. Capable of deoxyribose oxidation. It is named deoxyribose because there is no oxygen attached to its 2nd carbon. Deoxyribose acts as a building block for DNA. A purine or pyrimidine base attaches to the 1st carbon of deoxyribose to form a deoxynucleoside. Deoxynucleosides and inorganic phosphate combine to form deoxynucleotides. Deoxynucleotides combine to form DNA. DNA transfers the hereditary characteristics of organisms through generations.

4. Glucose
Glucose is a six-carbon monosaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Its molecular signal. It is called aldohexose as it contains aldehyde group. Ripe fruits and honey contain high amounts of glucose. As the ripe fruit contains 12-30% glucose, it is called grape sugar. It is called dextrose, corn sugar, grape sugar, blood sugar and D-glucose. Its relative sweetness is 74. Glucose is produced in the plant body in the process of photosynthesis. However, sugars are never stored in plant bodies. It acts as the primary component of respiration.

Properties of Glucose
(i) Glucose is a simple sugar.
(ii) It is a white granular substance.
(iii) It has a sweet taste.
(iv) It is soluble in water.
(v) It is slightly soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in ether.
(vi) It contains aldehyde group. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(vii) It is called aldose sugar.
(viii) It is a reactive sugar.
(ix) Glucose binds to proteins in the animal body to form glycoproteins.
(x) It reacts with phosphoric acid to form esters.
(xi) Its melting point is 146 degrees Celsius. (α- D glucose) and 150 degrees C. (β-D glucose).

Different types of glucose
(i) D Glucose (Dextrorotatory): If the hydroxyl (OH) group is attached to the right side of the 5th carbon of glucose.
It is called dextrorotatory or D glucose. Its rotation direction is to the right of the chiral center. It is a light activator. All natural glucose is D glucose. Dr. Siddique Publications
(ii) L Glucose (Laevorotatory): If the hydroxyl (OH) group is attached to the left side of the 5th carbon of glucose, it is called Laevorotatory or L glucose. Its rotation direction is to the left of the chiral center. It is a light activator. L-glucose is synthetically produced for use in diabetes medication and endoscopy. (The center along which the carbon molecules are linked is called the chiral center). Dr. Siddique Publications
(iii) α-D glucose and β-D glucose: Carbon 1 of glucose forms an oxygen bridge near carbon 5. A ring structure is formed as a result. An -OH group is generated due to the ring structure. If the -OH group is below the 1st carbon of glucose, it is called α-D glucose and if it is above the 1st carbon of glucose, it is called β-D glucose. α-glucose forms starch and β-glucose forms cellulose. D glucose is always present in the plant body.

Use of glucose
(i) Glucose is used as patient food. Quickly energizes the patient.
(ii) It is used in fruit preservation. Prevents fruit rot.
(iii) D-glucose is used to produce vitamin C from bacteria in the Richstein process.
(iv) Glucose is used in the preparation of calcium gluconate drugs.
(v) It plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism in the organism.
(vi) It is used to make citric acid, gluconic acid, bio-ethanol, sorbital etc.
(vii) It acts as a source of energy for sick people. Dr. Siddique Publications
(viii) Glycoproteins and glycolipids are formed from glucose.
(ix) Glucose is used in the process of glycolysis to generate energy.

5. Fuctose
Fructose is a six carbon monosaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Since it contains a keto group, it is called a ketohexose. Fructose is so named because it was first identified from fruit. Sugarcane, beets, ripe fruits, nectar and honey contain high amounts of fructose. Ripe fruits contain a lot of fructose, so it is called fruit sugar or levulose. Its relative sweetness is 173. Fructose is the largest source of fructose in plants. Augustin Pierre Dubrunfaut discovered it in 1847. 2,40,000 tons of fructose are produced in the world every year. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Properties of fructose
(i) Fructose is a simple sugar.
(ii) It is a white granular substance.
(iii) It has a sweet taste.
(iv) It is soluble in water.
(v) It is soluble in hot alcohol.
(vi) It contains keto group.
(vii) It is called ketose sugar.
(viii) It is a reactive sugar.

Use of fructose
(i) Fructose is used in making sweets.
(ii) Used in making beverages, cakes, juices etc.
(iii) It acts as a source of energy.
(iv) It is used as delicacy for sick people.
(v) Fructose is used as a substitute for glucose in diabetic patients.
(vi) It combines with phosphoric acid to form esters.
(vii) It is used to prepare culture medium.
(viii) Male semen contains fructose. Therefore, sexual harassment can be proven by checking the presence of fructose in the genitals of women. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Chemical structure of fructose
Fructose is a six-carbon chemical compound with the molecular symbol C6H12O6. Fructose can be of two types based on the position of the -OH group. These are D and L fructose. If the -OH group on the 5th carbon of fructose is on the right side, it is called dextrorotatory or D fructose and if the -OH group on the 5th carbon of fructose is on the left side, it is called Laevorotatory or L fructose. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Why is fructose harmful to the human body?
A certain amount of fructose is metabolized in human liver cells. The liver cannot metabolize all the fructose when consuming high-calorie and high-fructose foods. Excess fructose is converted to fat and stored. Accumulated fat causes obesity, type-2 diabetes, cancer, heart disease, etc. in humans. So fructose is harmful to human body. Dr. Siddiq Publications

* Pyranose: Pyranose is hexagonal and has 5 carbons and 1 oxygen in its ring.
* Furanose: Furanose is pentagonal and has 4 carbons and 1 oxygen in its ring.

Relative Sweetness: Lactose-16, Maltose-32, Glucose-74, Sucrose-100, Fructose-173, Saccharin-500, Monaleline-2000. Dr. Siddiq Publications

6. Mannose: Mannose is a monosaccharide. It is an aldohexose sugar. It is the C-2 epimer of glucose. The molecular symbol for mannose is C5H10O5. It works metabolically in the human body. It plays an important role in glycosylation of proteins.
7. Galactose: Galactose is a monosaccharide. It is an aldohexose sugar. It is the C-2 epimer of glucose. The molecular symbol for galactose is C6H12O6. It is used to prepare culture media.

8. Sucrose : Definition, structure, characteristics and uses
The Latin word Sucrose means Sugar. Sucrose is a disaccharide. It is a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose is called sugar or beet sugar. Sugarcane, beets, carrots, flower nectar, pineapple etc. contain sucrose. The main raw material of honey is sucrose. Sugarcane contains 15% sucrose. It is twice as sweet as glucose. Carbohydrates are produced in plant leaves during photosynthesis and transported to various organs as sucrose. That is, sucrose is transported throughout the plant body. Sugar is sucrose. Analyzing sugar produces glucose and fructose. About 170 million tons of sugar are produced every year. English chemist William Miller (1857) coined the term sucrose.

Chemical structure of sucrose
Sucrose is a disaccharide and its molecular symbol is C12H24O11. Glucose and fructose combine to form sucrose molecules. The -OH group on the 1st carbon of α-D glucose and the OH group on the 2nd carbon of β-D glucose form a glycosidic bond. A molecule of water is released during the formation of the glycosidic bond. As a result, aldehyde and ketone groups are destroyed. So while glucose and fructose are reducing sugars, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Characteristics of sucrose
(i) Sucrose is a white granular solid.
(ii) It is soluble in water, but insoluble in pure alcohol and ether.
(iii) It is twice as sweet in taste as glucose.
(iv) Its melting point is 188°C.
(v) Its wet analysis gives glucose and fructose.
(vi) It is a reactive sugar.
(vii) It is a non-reducing sugar.

Use of sucrose
(i) As Sweetener: Sucrose is most widely used in the preparation of sweetened foods.
(ii) Energy producing: It produces energy as a component of respiration.
(iii) Soap making: It is used to make transparent soap.
(iv) Commercial use: Sucrose is used commercially to make glucose and oxalic acid.
(v) Formation of polysaccharides: It helps in formation of polysaccharides. Dr. Siddique Publications
(vi) Stored energy: Sucrose acts as a reservoir of stored energy in the plant body.
(vii) As Bait: Flies, cockroaches, ants and other harmful insects are attracted by sucrose. Sucrose is used as poison bait to kill them. Dr. Siddique Publications
(viii) Acid making: Sucrose is used to make oxalic acid.
(ix) Production of honey: The main raw material of honey is sucrose.
(x) As a preservative: Sucrose is a natural preservative. It is used in food preservation.
(xi) Fermentation process: Sucrose is the main food of fungi. Fungi accelerate the fermentation process. This is why sugar is used along with the raw material in the fermentation process. Dr. Siddique Publications
(xii) In Horticulture: Sucrose creates an inhospitable environment for nematode worms in the soil. So sucrose is used in garden soil.

9. Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide. Its molecular symbol is C12H22O11. Milk contains 2-4% lactose. One molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose are joined by a glycosidic bond to form lactose. Lactase enzyme breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. Dr. Siddiq Publications
10. Cellobiose
Cellobiose is a disaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Its molecular symbol is C12H22O11. Cellobiose is produced by the partial breakdown of cellulose or lignin. Two molecules of glucose are joined by β-1,4 linkage to form cellobiose. Cellobiose is broken down into glucose under the influence of emulsin enzymes and acids. Bromine oxidizes cellobiose with water to form cellobionic acid. Dr. Siddique Publications
Function: Cellobiose acts as a structural component of cell wall.
11. Maltose
Maltose is a disaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Its molecular symbol is C12H22O11. It is sweet in taste and its sweetness is 30-60% of sugar. Maltose is produced by partial distillation of sugar. Maltose is formed by the partial breakdown of starch. Two molecules of glucose are joined by α-1,4 linkage to form maltose. Maltose is used in malting barley to make beer.

12. Cellulose
Cellulose is a complex homopolysaccharide. The cell wall of autophagous plants is composed of cellulose. Cellulose is the most abundant organic material on Earth. Glucose is obtained by wet analysis of cellulose with hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide. Cellulose molecules contain β-1-4 glycosidic linkages. Neither animals nor humans can digest cellulose because they have no enzymes to break these β-1-4 glycosidic bonds. French chemist Anselme Payen (1838) discovered cellulose. Kobayashi & Shoda (1992) first produced synthetic cellulose. Dr. Siddiq Publications

Amount of cellulose
94% in cotton, 90% in linen or linseed, 90% in cellulose, 30-40% in grass, 60% in wood, 45% in dry hemp fiber, 58% in jute, 40% in sugarcane bagasse, 42% in wheat straw and 40-70% in organic soil. remains

Properties of Cellulose
(i) Cellulose is a tasteless, odorless and colorless substance.
(ii) It is chemically inert, but converts to glucose on wet analysis with strong acids.
(iii) It is insoluble in water and organic solvents. Dr. Siddique Publications
(iv) Its molecular weight ranges from 2 lakh to several lakh daltons.
(v) It is non-toxic and non-oxidizing.
(vi) It shows no color in iodine solution.
(vii) It is tough and fibrous.
(viii) It has no nutritional value.
(ix) Cellulose contains 44.41% carbon, 44.4% oxygen and 6.2% hydrogen.

Chemical structure of cellulose
Cellulose is a complex polysaccharide. It is composed of glucose molecules. Numerous glucose molecules are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds to form cellulose. Cellulose is converted to glucose by hydrolysis with H2SO4 or HCl or NaOH.

Uses of cellulose
(i) Textile industry: Cellulose is used as the main raw material for textile industry. Rayon is made from cellulose as the raw material of the fabric.
(ii) As an explosive: It is used as a nitrate explosive. Cellulose is used as raw material for making nitrocellulose. Dr. Siddique Publications
(iii) For making furniture: Cellulose is the main material of wood and bamboo. Various types of furniture are made from bamboo and wood.
(iv) In paper industry: It is used to make filter paper and tissue paper. Cellulose insulators are made from newsprint paper in a recycling process. Cellulose insulator is an environmentally friendly coating.
(v) Digestion: Wood-boring insects use cellulose to digest wood.
(vi) In making gum: Methyl cellulose is used in making gum. Pure cellulose is mixed with water to make glue.
(vii) For making photographic film: It is used for making photographic, cellophane and celluloid.
(viii) In Biotechnology: Cellulose produced from fungi and bacteria is being used in biotechnology.
(ix) As Structural Material: Cellulose acts as the main structural material of plants. It forms leaves, stems and branches of plants. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(x) Skeletal system of plants: Cellulose provides strength and protection to plants. Cellulose is therefore called the skeletal system of plants.
(xi) Faecal formation: Most of the cellulose ingested with animal feed is excreted as faeces. Rafez relieves constipation. Cellulose is therefore essential for animal life. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(xii) Stationary phase: Cellulose is used as the stationary phase in thin layer chromatography.

Why can’t people digest cellulose?
Cellulase, the enzyme that digests cellulose, is not produced in the mammalian digestive system. However, a type of mitotic bacteria lives in the digestive system of cows, buffaloes, goats, deer, sheep etc. All these bacteria produce cellulose digesting enzyme cellulase. This enzyme aids in cellulose digestion by cleaving the β, 1-4 glycosidic bonds of cellulose. Humans cannot digest cellulose because the human digestive system lacks such mitotic bacteria. But the human diet must contain cellulose-type food. Because cellulose is essential for the production of stool. Dr. Siddiq Publications

13. Starch
The German word Starch means strong or hard or hard or rigid. Starch is a complex homopolysaccharide. Its molecular symbol is (C6H10O5)n. Carbohydrates or sugars produced in the process of photosynthesis are converted into starch and stored. Rice, wheat, potato, sorghum, banana, barley etc. are the main sources of starch. All these ingredients contain 70-80% starch. Round potato starch particles are the largest and 100µm. Rice starch particles are smallest and 2µm. The first reference to the extraction of starch from plants is found in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder (77-78 AD). Dr. Siddiq Publications

Properties of Starch /Religion
(i) Starch is tasteless, odorless and colorless substance.
(ii) It is a white granular powdery organic chemical substance.
(iii) It is insoluble in water, alcohol and ether.
(iv) Starch turns blue in iodine solution.
(v) It breaks down at high temperature into large dextin particles.
(vi) Starch cannot oxidize Fehling’s solution.
(vii) Iodine reacts with amylose of starch to produce black or black-blue color.
(viii) Iodine reacts with amylopectin of starch to produce red or purple color.

Chemical structure of starch
Starch is a complex polysaccharide. Starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin. It contains 22% amylose and 78% amylopectin. Amylose is composed of 200-1000 molecules and amylopectin is composed of 2000-200,000 molecules of glucose. Numerous glucose molecules are linked by α-1-4 glycosidic bonds to form starch. However, glucose molecules can be joined by α-1-6 bonds. Starch is hydrolyzed to glucose.

Use of starch
(i) Stored food: Starch is stored in the plant body as stored food. Starch in plant seeds, fruits and tubers serves as stored food. Starch stored in rice, wheat, bhutra, cassava, corn and round potato is used as human food.
(ii) Source of energy: It acts as a source of energy in the organism. Starch is converted into glucose to provide energy and carbon molecules to the body. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(iii) Respiration: It generates heat and energy in respiration.
(iv) Research: Starch is used in the laboratory to produce glucose and alcohol.
(v) In Paper Industry: Starch is the main ingredient in paper industry.
(vi) Preparation of glue: Pure starch is mixed with hot water to make glue. It is used to make corrugated board glue.
(vii) In titration: Starch is used as indicator during titration.
(viii) Textile use: Warp seizing agent is produced from starch. Warp shrinking agents reduce the rate of yarn tearing during fabric weaving. Starch is used for beating (laundry) cloth. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(ix) Oil exploration: Starch is used to increase the viscosity of drilling fluids, which are slippery fluids in oil exploration.
(x) Manufacture of cosmetics: Starch is used in the manufacture of talcum powder and other cosmetics.
(xi) Food processing: Starch is used to increase the density of food during food processing.
(xii) Production of Polymers: Starch is used to make eco-friendly bioplastics and other synthetic polymers.
(xiii) Fuel production: Biofuel corn ethanol is produced from starch in a fermentation process.
(xiv) Reproduction: Starch stored in the fruits, seeds, rhizomes and corms of the plant participates in the production of offspring in the next season.
(xv) In pharmaceutical industry: Starch is used as active ingredient carrier, tablet disintegrant and binder in pharmaceutical industry.
(xvi) Clothing starch: Liquid clothing starch is prepared by mixing pure starch with water. It is used in garments and laundry.

14. Glycogen
Glycogen is a nutrient complex homopolysaccharide. Glycogen is the main stored food in the animal body. Glycogen is stored in the liver, muscles, brain and stomach of vertebrates. But the liver has the most. Human liver contains about 100-120 grams of glycogen. Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae and some fungi (yeasts) have glycogen as stored food. Glycogen is called animal starch. French scientist Claude Bernard (1857) discovered glycogen.

Glycogen Properties/Religions
(i) Glycogen is a white powdery biochemical substance.
(ii) It is soluble in water. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(iii) It forms suspension in cold water.
(iv) Its molecular weight is 50 lakh daltons.
(v) On wet analysis it converts first to maltose and then to α-glucose.
(vi) It reacts with iodine solution to acquire a reddish violet color.
(vii) Heat removes its red color.
(viii) It reverts to black color on cooling.
(ix) Partially hydrolyzed to maltose and fully hydrolyzed to α-D glucose.
(x) It is converted into glucose in the process of glycolysis.
(xi) It keeps blood glucose levels normal.

Chemical structure of glycogen
Glycogen is a complex polysaccharide. It is composed of numerous α-glucose molecules. In the process of glycogenesis, 30,000 molecules of glucose combine to form glycogen. Glucose molecules are linked by α-1-4 glycosidic bonds to form glycogen. Branching of glycogen occurs through α-1-6 linkage. Each branch contains 10-20 glucose molecules. Their molecular weight is 106-107 daltons. Glycogen is hydrolyzed into glucose. Glycogen is converted to glucose when needed to provide carbon and energy. For this reason, glycogen is called animal starch.

Utilization of glycogen
(i) Stored food: Glycogen is stored in the animal body as stored food.
(ii) Glucose production: Glucose is produced from liver glycogen in the process of glycogenesis.
(iii) Muscle energy: Glycogen stored in skeletal and cardiac muscles provides extra energy to muscles.
(iv) Regulation of blood volume: It regulates blood volume in the body. Increases blood glucose levels by breaking down liver glycogen. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(v) Formation of suspension: It forms colloidal suspension in water.
(vi) Production of Surfactant: Glycogen begins to accumulate in the pulmonary cells of the fetal baby at 23 weeks of gestation. Stored glycogen produces lung surfactant.
(vii) Energy storage: Glycogen production and storage takes place in the liver cells of animals. It acts as a stored energy reservoir secondary to the glucose cycle in the animal body. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(viii) Energy supply to the brain: A small amount of glycogen is stored in brain cells. It powers the conscious brain.

15. Inulin
Inulin is a polysaccharide. It is dissolved in cells. It contains 30-35 fructose units. Plants of the family Asteraceae such as dahlia, chicory, Jerusalem artichoke etc. contain inulin. Inulin is found in onions and garlic.
16. Chitin
Chitin is a polysaccharide. A simple linear homopolymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues is called chitin. Chitin is one of the most abundant substances on earth. It is the second most important polymer in the world. Its chemical symbol is (C8H13O5)n. Numerous D amino monomers are joined by β-1, 4 glycosidic bonds to form chitin.
Properties of chitin
(i) Chitin is insoluble in water, organic acids and weak acids.
(ii) It is soluble in strong formic acid and methane sulphonic acid.
(iii) It is stronger and more stable than cellulose.
(iv) Chitin is decomposed by strong acids to acetic acid and u-amino glucose.
(v) It is similar to keratin protein.
Source of Chitin: Chitin forms the exoskeleton or shell of animals like moths, crabs, shrimps, lobsters, squids. The cell walls of yeast and fungi are made of chitin. Dr. Siddique Publications
Uses of chitin: Chitin has uses in herbal, industrial and biotechnology.

Chitin forms the exoskeleton or shell of animals like moths, crabs, shrimps, lobsters, squids. The cell walls of yeast and fungi are made of chitin. Dr. Siddique Publications
Uses of chitin: Chitin has uses in herbal, industrial and biotechnology.

(i) Chitin is insoluble in water, organic acids and weak acids.
(ii) It is soluble in strong formic acid and methane sulphonic acid.
(iii) It is stronger and more stable than cellulose.
(iv) Chitin is decomposed by strong acids to acetic acid and u-amino glucose.
(v) It is similar to keratin protein.

Chitin is a polysaccharide. A simple linear homopolymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues is called chitin. Chitin is one of the most abundant substances on earth. It is the second most important polymer in the world. Its chemical symbol is (C8H13O5)n. Numerous D amino monomers are joined by β-1, 4 glycosidic bonds to form chitin.

Chitin is a polysaccharide. A simple linear homopolymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues is called chitin. Chitin is one of the most abundant substances on earth. It is the second most important polymer in the world. Its chemical symbol is (C8H13O5)n. Numerous D amino monomers are joined by β-1, 4 glycosidic bonds to form chitin.
Properties of chitin
(i) Chitin is insoluble in water, organic acids and weak acids.
(ii) It is soluble in strong formic acid and methane sulphonic acid.
(iii) It is stronger and more stable than cellulose.
(iv) Chitin is decomposed by strong acids to acetic acid and u-amino glucose.
(v) It is similar to keratin protein.
Source of Chitin: Chitin forms the exoskeleton or shell of animals like moths, crabs, shrimps, lobsters, squids. The cell walls of yeast and fungi are made of chitin. Dr. Siddique Publications
Uses of chitin: Chitin has uses in herbal, industrial and biotechnology.

Inulin is a polysaccharide. It is dissolved in cells. It contains 30-35 fructose units. Plants of the family Asteraceae such as dahlia, chicory, Jerusalem artichoke etc. contain inulin. Inulin is found in onions and garlic.

(i) Stored food: Glycogen is stored in the animal body as stored food.
(ii) Glucose production: Glucose is produced from liver glycogen in the process of glycogenesis.
(iii) Muscle energy: Glycogen stored in skeletal and cardiac muscles provides extra energy to muscles.
(iv) Regulation of blood volume: It regulates blood volume in the body. Increases blood glucose levels by breaking down liver glycogen. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(v) Formation of suspension: It forms colloidal suspension in water.
(vi) Production of Surfactant: Glycogen begins to accumulate in the pulmonary cells of the fetal baby at 23 weeks of gestation. Stored glycogen produces lung surfactant.
(vii) Energy storage: Glycogen production and storage takes place in the liver cells of animals. It acts as a stored energy reservoir secondary to the glucose cycle in the animal body. Dr. Siddiq Publications
(viii) Energy supply to the brain: A small amount of glycogen is stored in brain cells. It powers the conscious brain.