Category: Biology Second Paper Lecture Sheet

Carbohydrates are complex biochemical substances. It is complex, insoluble and non-absorbable for the organism. It is of no benefit to the organism. Sugars are digested into glucose, fructose and galactose by the action of various enzymes. Glucose, fructose and galactose are simple, soluble and absorbable by the body. Our body cells absorb glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose are then used to build the body and produce the energy it needs. The requirements for carbohydrate digestion are discussed below.
1. Source of energy: Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in the body. Carbohydrates are oxidized to produce energy. Lack of this leads to lack of energy in the body and gradually weakens the body.
2. As stored food: Carbohydrates are digested to produce glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose are stored in the body as stored food.
3. As a patient’s diet: Glucose is simple and soluble and acts as a patient’s diet. Therefore, for sick and weak people, carbohydrates need to be digested quickly.
4. Physical Growth: Glucose and fructose in quantity are essential for normal growth of the body.
5. Vitamin production: Carbohydrates are digested and converted into glucose. Glucose makes vitamin C in the body.
6. Structural material: Cellulose and hemicellulose act as the structural material of plants.
7. Blood volume regulation: Liver glycogen is converted to glucose. This glucose controls the amount of blood in the body.
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in the body. Carbohydrates provide all the energy the body needs. Adequate intake of glucose is required for normal growth and keeping the body healthy. However, there is a possibility of diabetes if there is excess glucose in the blood.

1. Digested in the mouth
(i) Tyalin enzyme breaks down starch and glycogen into maltose, maltotriose and isomaltose.
(ii) Maltose is converted into glucose under the action of maltase enzyme.
2. Digestion in the stomach
(i) Lysozyme destroys bacteria ingested with food.
3. Digestion in the pancreatic juice of the small intestine
(i) The enzyme amylase breaks down starch and glycogen into maltose, maltotriose and dextin.
(ii) Maltose is converted to glucose in the presence of maltase enzyme.
4. Digestion in the intestinal juice of the small intestine
(i) Amylase enzyme breaks down starch and dextin into maltose, maltotriose and minor dextin.
(ii) Maltose and glucose are produced from isomaltose under the action of isomaltase enzyme.
(iii) Maltotriase enzyme breaks down maltotriose into glucose.
(iv) Glucose is produced from maltose under the action of maltase enzyme.
(v) Sucrase enzyme breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose.
(vi) Glucose and galactose are produced from lactose under the action of lactase enzyme.
Carbohydrates are complex biochemical substances. It is complex, insoluble and non-absorbable for the organism. It is of no benefit to the organism. Sugars are digested into glucose and fructose by the action of various enzymes. Glucose and fructose are simple, soluble and absorbable by the body. Our body cells absorb glucose and fructose. It is this glucose and fructose that gives energy to our body.

Protein is a complex biochemical substance. It is complex, insoluble and non-absorbable for the organism. It is of no benefit to the organism. Proteins are digested and converted into amino acids by the action of various enzymes. Amino acids are simple, soluble and absorbable by the body. Our body cells absorb amino acids. Later amino acids combine to form proteins. This protein is essential for the body. Protein digestion requirements are discussed below.
1. Body Structure: Protein acts as the structural component of the human body. Fibrous proteins make connections between different tissues of the body. Collagen protein forms the body’s skin, tendons, bones, cartilage, etc. It protects the joints between muscles. Carotene protein forms hair and nails. Protein completes the necessary functions of the body through digestion.
2. As stored food: Protein is stored in the body as stored food after digestion.
3. Transmission of Hereditary Traits: Genetic information stored in DNA-molecules is released through protein synthesis. Histone proteins maintain the stability of chromosomes, bind nucleic acids and play special roles in gene expression. It transfers hereditary traits from generation to generation.
4. Physical Growth: Protein is essential for normal growth of the body. Humans are dwarfed due to lack of protein. It promotes the healthy development of the intelligence of the organism.
5. Immunity: Proteins produce antibodies in the body. As a result, the immune system of the body increases. Currently, various types of viruses have been identified as the cause of cancer. A special protein called interferon is used to treat blood cancer. If there is a deficiency of protein, the body gets sick easily. So protein needs to be digested in the body.
6. Energy production: Protein produces the energy required by the body. Lack of this leads to lack of energy in the body and gradually weakens the body. Therefore, protein digestion is very important in the body.
7. Organ Deformation: Proteins determine the shape of various body organs. Prevents nervous weakness. Smoothens the skin. Stops hair loss.
8. Transport function: A protein called hemoglobin transports oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body. It also transports some ions.
9. Structure of cell membrane: Protein forms the plasma membrane, nuclear membrane, membrane of various cellular organelles etc.
10. Hormone production: Protein plays a role in the production of various types of hormones.
11. Regulation of reactions: Proteins regulate different types of reactions in the body.
Protein is the main component of the body. Organisms cannot be formed without protein. In its absence, various organs of the body become damaged. The body is affected by various diseases. To keep the body healthy, strong and disease-free, it is necessary to consume enough protein. If the amount of protein in the body is normal, the structure of the body is smooth and the skin is smooth. But if there is a deficiency of protein in the body, the body will become weak and the organism will fall into the lap of death due to lack of it.

1. Buccal Digestion: Buccal does not contain any protein digesting enzymes. Mucin present in saliva makes the food slippery.
2. Digestion in the stomach
(i) Inactive pepsinogen is converted to active pepsin under the influence of HCl. Pepsin breaks down proteins into proteases and peptones.
(ii) Gelatinase enzyme breaks down gelatin to produce peptones and polypeptides.
3. Digestion in the pancreatic juice of the small intestine
(i) Inactive trypsinogen is converted to active trypsin under the action of enterokinase enzyme. Trypsin converts peptone into dipeptides and polypeptides.
(ii) Inactive chymotrypsinogen is converted to active chymotrypsin with the help of trypsin enzyme. Chymotrypsin breaks down milk casein into paracasein.
(iii) Elastase enzyme breaks down elastin into peptides.
(iv) Peptides are produced from collagen by the action of collagenase enzyme.
4. Digestion in the intestinal juice of the small intestine
(i) Amino peptidase enzyme breaks down polypeptides into amino acids.
(ii) Prolidase enzyme cleaves the peptide into proline.
(iii) Dipeptides and amino acids are produced from tripeptides under the action of tripeptidase enzyme.
(iv) Dipeptidase enzyme breaks down dipeptide into amino acids.
Protein is a complex biochemical substance. It is complex, insoluble and non-absorbable for the organism. It is of no benefit to the organism. Proteins are digested and converted into amino acids by the action of various enzymes. Amino acids are simple, soluble and absorbable by the body. Our body cells absorb amino acids. Later amino acids combine to form proteins. These proteins make up our body.

Food digestion in the human body occurs in two processes. Mechanical and Chemical.
1. Mechanical Digestion: The process in which food moves inside the alimentary canal through circulatory action is called mechanical digestion. During this time food is broken down into tiny pieces, chewed, digested and transported.
2. Chemical Digestion: The process in which complex food is converted into simple and absorbable material with the help of acid, acid, alkali and enzymes through a series of reactions is called chemical digestion.

It takes 24-72 hours for a healthy person to digest food. Very high-calorie fatty foods are digested in 6 hours and sugary foods in 2 hours. Food mixes with saliva to form a lumpy bolus. In the stomach, food is converted into chyme. Peristalsis or food waves occur in the stomach every 15-20 seconds. Love breaks down food into tiny granules. This process is called emulsification.
Stages of digestion
6 steps of complex food digestion in human body.
1 . Ingestion of food and water
2 . Mechanical digestion of food
3 . Chemical digestion of food
4 . Movement of food
5 . Absorption of food and water
6 . Waste disposal

The signal by which the number, position and nature of adult human teeth is known is called dental signal. Humans are diphyodont (grow twice) in nature. Babies have a total of 20 milk teeth in both jaws. Between the ages of 18-24, baby teeth fall out and 32 permanent teeth emerge. An adult human has four types of teeth. Incisor, Canine, Pre-molar and Molar.
1. Incisor: There are 4 incisor teeth in the front of each jaw. The teeth are sharp and suitable for tearing food. The incisors can exert a force equivalent to 55 pounds.
2. Canine: Each jaw has one incisor after the incisor. Its number is 2. The teeth are conical in shape and suitable for tearing hard food.
3. Pre-molar: Each jaw has two incisors after the incisors. Its number is 4. It involves chewing (mastication) and grinding food.
4. Molar: Each jaw has three molars after the incisors. Its number is 6. It chews and grinds food. Grinding teeth can exert a force equivalent to 200 pounds. Babies don’t have molars.

A diet that contains the six elements in equal amounts and provides nutrients and energy to the body is called a balanced diet. The 6 components of a balanced diet are sugars, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water.

All enzymes present in the plasma membrane of microvilli are called membrane enzymes. Some membrane enzymes are holo-aminopeptidase, maltase, sucrase, lactase, alkaline phosphatase, nucleotidase, nucleosidase etc.

(i) Intestinal juice contains mucus. Mucus protects the intestinal wall from the action of enzymes.
(ii) Enterokinase in intestinal juice converts inactive trypsinogen to trypsin.
(iii) Maltase in intestinal juice converts maltose, sucrase converts sucrose and lactase converts lactose to glucose.
(iv) Peptidase enzyme in this juice converts polypeptides into amino acids.